PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF USING FAKE NIGERIAN NATIONAL ID BY FOREIGNERS

  • : Ms Word, Ms Word Format
  • : 75 Pages
  • : ₦5000
  • : 1-5 Chapters
  •  
  • Click to DOWNLOAD Materials

PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF USING FAKE NIGERIAN NATIONAL ID BY FOREIGNERS

ABSTRACT

 

This study explores the implementation of national identification system through a comparative study of national identification in India and Nigeria. The study is situated in the theory of organizing vision by Swanson and Ramiller. Data for the study was obtained from primary sources, mainly through interviews and secondary sources of information included internets, journal articles, books, reports etc. The study revealed that lack of central database poses a major challenge to the implementation national identification projects in Nigeria. The study also revealed that strong legislative instrument is critical to protect both citizens’ identity and national identification databases. The study also identified the best practices in the Indian Identification system that could be incorporated in the ongoing national identification project in Nigeria, including the outsourcing of certain identification projects to the private sector to ensure cost effectiveness, efficiency and to make the project financially viable. The study recommends that there should be registration and issuance of national identity cards at birth. The national identity card should be the main requirement for the acquisition of any national document such as passport, driving license etc.  It should also be the legitimate document to be used to access other government services like school enrollment, pension entitlements, among others, to serve as motivation for citizens with the aim of enhancing enrollment.

 

CHAPTER ONE

RESEARCH DESIGN

 

1.0        Background to the Study

Society has looked for solutions to the problem of identifying individuals in states for hundreds of years, using available technologies to meet the need.1 Unfortunately, the qualities of identification system (IS) in countries vary based on financial capabilities and political commitment. Most developed countries have robust identification systems based on strong basic official documentation such as birth certificates but many people living in developing countries lack any official documentation.2

 

Human beings have had various ways to identify individuals and groups but the origins of contemporary national identification system date back to 1938, when lawmakers in the United Kingdom passed the National Registry Act, which mandated that all residents possess identity cards. Subsequently, Germany, France, Poland, Greece, among others, also instituted Identity Card (ID) systems after the end of World War II.3

 

Traditional social structures ensured local recognition during the early days, but communal systems of identification diminish with internal migration and urbanization. For many developing countries, this identity gap severely limits opportunities for economic, social and political development. Accordingly, robust identification services are urgently needed to address the identity gap. Nonetheless, recent advanced human recognition (AHR) technologies now offer accurate tools for identification (who are you?) and authentication (are you who you claim to be?)  In 1949, ID card adoption emerged in Asia, as newly independent governments sought to expand state authority. For instance, the Hong Kong and Taiwan governments introduced an identity card system to strengthen their sovereignty and quell immigration from mainland China. South Korea and Singapore followed suit in the 1960s for reasons of economic transformation.4

 

During this same period, most developing countries were under colonial rule and at different stages of the independence struggle. Generally, most French former colonies such as Algeria, Togo, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali maintained the identification systems inherited because of the assimilation policy of France which sought to extend national identification laws to all colonies.5

 

The issue of identification continues to be contentious because while others such as refugees, pensioners and potential electoral voters perceive it as a form of documentation which ensures their security, inclusion, entitlement and freedom, the ID system which has gained prominence as a method of identification has also been seen as government’s encroachment on citizen’s rights and its associated concerns of victimization, oppression and means for exclusion of some persons.

 

Similarly, Biometric identification has also provoked opposing viewpoints; while it has been seen as means of improving service delivery, its surveillance capabilities has also raised concerns with respect to privacy of users.6 It is worth mentioning that in some countries such as Rwanda, historically had group classifications such as “Tutsi” and this identification mark played an ugly role in the ethnic violence in the country.7 This Rwanda case signifies one of such fears or dangers of national identification system particularly biometric identification system in some states.

 

However, in recent times the utility and morality of national identification systems and the technologies adopted depend largely on the prevailing situation in respective countries.8 For example, the issue of national identification gained prominence in the United States (U.S) after the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001. Advocates of national IDs in U.S argue that the terrorists were able to use false identities to obtain Social Security Numbers and driver’s licenses from

Virginia due to lack of national identification system in the country.9

 

 

Developed countries pursue national identification systems for security reasons while poorer nations deploy identification systems for developmental purposes including service delivery such as pensions and health insurance, among others. However, there are few exceptions. For instance,

Pakistan’s identity programme was initially introduced for security concerns but it has now been used for service delivery and welfare entitlements.10

 

Undoubtedly, ID card policies have become dependent on each country's institutional capacities and financial resources. Accordingly, the successful implementation of the biometric national ID project in India represents the opportunity for other developing countries to adopt feasible ID projects according to their respective national needs. For instance, the nationwide Indian Aadhaar identification project aims to register 1.2billion Indians by 2020. The Unique Identification Number (UID) biometric system collects all 10 fingerprints and an iris scan for both eyes for each citizen including other demographic information.11

 

Due to the benefits of biometrics, many countries around the world are now considering deploying biometric enabled national ID cards for their citizens. This biometric-based identification card can also be used as a smartcard for various purposes including the distribution of government services and welfare benefits. In addition, biometric modalities are extremely difficult to counterfeit due to sophisticated detection features. Furthermore, establishment of a central biometric database is costsaving in nature as the national ID cards can be used for different purposes including voting, health insurance and can also serve as main requirement for the attainment of other national documents.12

 

1.1        Statement of the Research Problem

The issue of a national identification card in Nigeria has provoked diverse reactions with regards to its relevance and the motive behind the projects. Again, the debate over the merits of a national ID system failed to gain momentum in previous times, partly due to lack of citizens’ appreciation of its real significance in the socio-economic processes in the country with regards to the personal benefits for users.

 

However, the emerging regional terrorism trends as evident in the recent terrorist attacks in neighboring Burkina Faso, Cote d’Ivoire and Mali, as well as the 2016 contestation of the electoral register validity over allegations of registered foreign nationals, among others, have revived the need and the call for the effective implementation of a national identification system in Nigeria.  Nigeria's efforts to issue identification cards date back to 1973 when the Citizens Identity Card was introduced on a limited scale for the border regions as a cross border control measure. The project was discontinued three years later due to problems with logistics and lack of financial support.13  Subsequently, various governments have invested substantial resources in terms of financial, human and technical, to address the issue of identification which resulted in the establishment of the National Identification Authority (NIA) in 2003 with the sole mandate to issue national ID cards. However, it only resulted in proliferation of various biometric systems with little or no interconnectivity.14

 

Comparatively, the Indian identification programme launched on 28th January 2009 has registered over 1.12 billion members, 88.2 percent of the population, as of 2nd November, 2016 while the Nigeria National Identification Authority (NIA) as of May, 2017 has enrolled only 4.5 million resident Nigeriaians, representing 17 percent of the population.15  Currently, NIA has commenced mass registration from the government institutions amid protestation about the required documents for the enrolment. For this reason, the main opposition party, the National Democratic Congress (NDC) has called on its supporters to boycott the exercise. It is against this background that I am motivated to thoroughly investigate this problem in Nigeria. It is imperative to assess the challenges to the implementation of a national identification system in Nigeria and also to identify the lessons the latter can learn from the Indian experience.

 

1.2        Research Questions

The research sought to identify the challenges to the effective implementation of a national identification system in Nigeria and to propose measures to address obstacles. To appreciate and deal with this central problem, the following questions are raised by the study:

  • What are the needs, benefits and challenges of a National Identification system in

Nigeria?

  • What lessons can Nigeria learn from the Indian experience?
  • What measures can be taken for ensuring the sustainability of a national identification programme in Nigeria.

1.3        Objectives of the Study

Generally, the study sought to find out how Nigeria, can draw lessons from the Indian experience in adoption of National Identity card system. Specifically, the study sought to achieve three specific objectives, namely:

  • Identify the need, challenges and benefits associated with the implementation of a national identification project in Nigeria.
  • Identify the lessons Nigeria can draw from the Indian experience.
  • Propose measures for ensuring the long-term sustainability of a national identification program in Nigeria.

 

1.4        Significance of the Study

The adoption of national identity management systems has become crucial to the establishment of strategic partnerships between the state and citizens.16  It is also important to note that failure to register populations and provide identity documents is believed to have detrimental effects for both the individual and the state, thus the essence of this study. To better understand and serve citizens, countries are paying increasing attention to establishing national identification systems and the role they play in strategic political, economic, and social development.17

 

The study therefore highlights the needs and benefits, as well as the challenges with regards to the implementation of a national identification programme in Nigeria. Another significance of this study is hopefully to draw some useful lessons from India. The findings would hopefully assist the relevant Nigeriaian authorities to incorporate the necessary measures to achieve the intended goals of national identification system in Nigeria and the measures to be taken to sustain the programme.

1.5       Scope of the Study

This study is limited to the needs, the benefits and challenges facing the implementation of national identification projects in Nigeria, including the current “Nigeria Card” project and the necessary measures adopted to address the situation and sustaining the projects. In this regard, the study also covers the identification of the best practices in the Indian Aadhaar System.

The study was to have been conducted and completed within a 3-month period from May to July, 2018. However, due to constraints in gathering data and conducting interviews, this was not possible as the researcher asked for a further period of extension in order to complete the study.

Thus, instead of 3 months, the research was completed in 5 months.

 

1.6        Hypothesis

The successful outcome of the ongoing national identification programme in Nigeria would depend greatly on sustained funding, improved participation and political commitment.

 

1.7       Theoretical Framework

The main theoretical concept that underpins this study is the Organizing Vision (OV) which helps to explain the decisions of governments to adopt Information Technology (IT) innovation such as the pursuit of biometrics in national identification programmes. The OV theory was propounded by Swanson and Ramiller in 1997 to explain how a collective process of creating a vision enables successful adoption of programmes both within and across organizations.18

 

Organizing vision provides a useful framework needed to understand the series of actions taken by institutions to facilitate the adoption and use of new technologies.19 In contrast to traditional perception that the early decision to adopt a new technological innovation occurs as a result of local and rational organizational processes which are subsequently institutionalized to reflect the updated version of the technology,20 Swanson & Ramiller argue that technological innovation can be better explained by considering the phenomenon as a collective process of creating and propagating an organization vision that seeks to coordinate decisions and actions towards the technology’s materialization and deployment.21

 

Accordingly, Weick considers the organization vision concept as a sense-making process, and Swanson & Ramiller opine that “in so making sense of the innovation, the community in effect also defines it and creates it.” Arrival of new technologies such as biometrics is mostly met with uncertainties regarding its benefits, future prospects and long-term consequences. An organizing vision, defined as “a focal community idea for the application of information technology in organizations”, is therefore intended to reduce the uncertainties associated with these new technologies.22

 

Swanson and Ramiller highlighted three main functions of an organizing vision:

Interpretation- When a new technology is adopted in the society, its meaning and implications are initially not well understood by the organizational actors or the implementation stakeholders. It is against this background that organizing visions are generated to provide focus for the interpretation of the innovation.23

 

Legitimation-These organizing visions also provide the reasons and justifications for the adoption of an innovation, basically answering the question, ‘why do it?’ The legitimation process is facilitated through the authority and prominence of individuals promulgating the vision. In an example cited in Swanson and Ramiller, the organizing vision can be promulgated as follows: an interior minister may ask his or her civil servant “why aren’t we doing biometrics yet?” This organizing vision generated by such a reputable individual could facilitate the promulgation of the innovation. 24

 

Mobilization- The organizing vision serves as a driving force that energizes market interest and related activities with regards to the realization of the innovation. It also provides clues and guidelines on the needed resources, including hardware, software and technical skills needed for the adoption of the innovation.25

 

Swanson and Ramiller insist that organizing visions are produced and sustained by the society with a common interest of either agreeing or disagreeing with the content of the vision. The existence of discursive interpretation over the meaning of the technology could be a potential for disagreement. Again, the vision’s interpretability and plausibility would determine how compelling it is to other shareholders and its eventual success or failure.26 Plausibility complements interpretability in the sense that both identify qualities of the community discourse that builds and sustains the OV. However, while interpretability concerns the intelligibility and informativeness of the community discourse, plausibility focuses on distortions in the discourse.27

 

Similarly, Swanson and Ramiller used the organizing vision concept to highlight the differences between ‘mindful’ and mindless innovations. Mindless innovation arises when organizations or society pursue new technology like biometrics because others are doing so. In contrast, organizations and societies that innovate mindfully do so “with reasoning grounded in organization facts and specifics.”28

 

Swanson and Ramiller identified five attributes of mindful innovation, including learning from failures, sensitivity in addressing minor technological issues, commitment to resilience and reluctance to oversimplify interpretations of new technology. Mindful organizations pay special attention to the opinions of experts than the formal authority. To this end, it could be argued that the organizing vision concept serves as an appropriate analytical tool to study the acceptance of technological in innovation in the society with regards to building consensus in the early stages of its adoption.

 

According to Reardon & Davidson, the OV theory have been employed to ascertain the adoption rate of Electronic Medical Record (EMR) technology by independent physicians. The pair used the theory to conduct a survey and it was established that prior to the adoption of EMR technology, individuals and organizations must become familiar with the innovation through community-wide interactions and discourse related to the innovation.29  Relying on the definition of Swanson & Ramiller to the effect that OV derives the community acceptance for the adoption of technological innovation in organizations, Reardon & Davidson concluded that OV helps in shaping how decision makers perceive the future application of technology innovations such as EMR.30

 

The organization vision concept is therefore applied in the study to explore how Nigeriaians perceive the use of biometrics for identification and to what extent their discourses within the community facilitate the implementation of the biometric identification system nationwide.

Contrary to Swanson and Ramiller assertion that organizing vision serves as a vital driving force behind society’s adoption of new technology or innovation, Fichman (2004), is of the view that several factors impact on the adoption of various ICT innovations. Critics of the Organizing Vision concept, therefore, argues that organizational adopters of innovation make independent rational decisions that are driven by economic and technical efficiency objectives (Strang & Meyer, 2001) and not just a mere societal acceptance as advocated by the Organizing Vision concept.  Therefore, the Organizing Vision theory fall short of accounting for the institutional complexities of modern organizational environments within which ICT innovations are developed and adopted (Currie & Parikh, 2005).

 

1.8       Literature Review

This section is devoted to a critical review of multi-disciplinary literature on national identification systems, especially on biometrics technology which features prominently in modern identification projects globally. Implementation of identity policies faces formidable challenges due to the interplay of social and technological consideration. The decision on how and where to store identity information poses a major challenge as centralized databases enhance security protections but becomes natural targets for hackers. Again, technological or human error in the database can permeate an entire community as other institutions also rely on the stored data. An individual could be excluded from the society due to lack of registration while fraudulent registration becomes difficult to detect and reverse.31 

 

Furthermore, security and privacy concerns also complicate identification system configuration, making it difficult for policy makers to reconcile the technological features of the system and societal considerations.32 Most developing countries have implemented a number of national identification systems in an attempt to curtail incidences of crime and enhance the provision of services to the citizens. However, despite the efforts and the perceived benefits of identification projects, numerous challenges continue to hamper successful implementation in Africa.33 For example, in Nigeria, there are several independent identification system initiatives running concurrently. The health insurance scheme, voters’ register, business registrations, social security numbers, birth and death register, biometric passports and drivers’ licences form part of the various registration programs rolled out by government agencies in different databases.34

 

1.8.1     The Use of Biometrics in National Identification Systems

In recent time the use of biometrics in national identification systems have gained prominence globally and it is therefore prudent to analyze the nature and form of biometrics currently being adopted for national identification systems worldwide. Accordingly, the inherent problems in biometric technologies and applications, as captured in research works on errors in pattern recognition, fusion of multiple (multi-modal) biometrics,35 and enhancing the efficiency of biometric database, among others, would also be evaluated.

 

Biometrics is invariably the physiological or behavioral measurements aimed at identifying an individual or verifying the identity of someone.36 Types of biometrics include facial recognition, hand geometry, fingerprints, vein and iris patterns, DNA profiling, among other emerging techniques such as nose and ear biometrics.37 Again, behavioral measurement techniques also include voice recognition, gait recognition, signature recognition, among others. Furthermore, bodily measurement must satisfy four requirements to be classified as a biometric, namely:38Universality - All participants have equal access to the system. If different biometric schemes- that is Iris, facial, or fingerprint- are deployed across the same population of users, then it’s not universal since individuals may have to use different biometrics for identification.

Distinctiveness--To ensure that different users do not share the same characteristics.  For instance, the use of height or weight as a biometric identifier would make it difficult to differentiate individuals’ other similar bodily characteristics.

Permanence -To ensure that identifiers are maintained over a considerably period of time with regards to the matching criterion since rapid variations of identifiers could cause matching problems and would require regular re-enrolment of biometric data. This could render the system ineffective and cause astronomical increase in the cost of enrolment.

Collectability --A biometric identifier should be measurable quantitatively. A bodily characteristic that cannot be measured could not be used as biometric. An internal feature of the body like the vein patterns in the hand is measurable and can constitute a biometric.

Additionally, in a practical identification system that uses biometrics for personal recognition, there are other factors that are worth consideration, including:

Performance--The technological resources required to achieve satisfactory recognition accuracy and speed, including enabling environmental factors.

Acceptability--The level of awareness and the willingness of the populace to accept a particular biometric identifier as a means of recognition.

Circumvention--The extent to which the system is susceptible to fraudulent activities.

To this end, a biometric system can use any human physiological or behavioral features as an identifier as long as it satisfies the universally, distinctiveness, permanence, and collectability requirements. Again, biometric deployment should also meet desired recognition accuracy, speed and relevant resources, user friendly, accepted by the target population and has sufficient security measures to address issues of fraudulent activities and other system breaches.39

 

Enrolment

Regarding the deployment of biometrics in national identification, enrolment process involves the capturing of biometric information for storage purposes and the extraction of certain required characteristics in the data to generate a biometric template A template could be defined as a compressed biometric data.40  It is noteworthy that although actual biometric information, including images are saved for administrative purposes, the template (which is not the actual fingerprint or Iris image but rather a digital code) are stored in the biometric system for recognition.41

 

Verification

Subsequently, biometric verification is the authentication of a claimed identity against a previously stored biometric template. 42 In other words, verification is the comparison of captured data against stored biometric template. A person presents him/herself as being someone and the biometric system, though the process of verification, seeks to confirm the identity of the claimant. Again,

Wayman refers to the process as “Positive Recognition” which aims at preventing different people from using the same identity.

 

Identification

Finally, biometric identification process includes the comparison of live biometric information against the biometric database with the aim of establishing “whose biometric data is this.” While verification is the one-to-one comparison of captured live data against a previously recorded template, identification establishes identities by means of a one-to-many comparison.43 Again, Wayman refers to the identification process as “negative recognition” where the biometric system establishes whether an individual is who he/she denies to be. Negative recognition seeks to rather prevent individuals from using multiple identities. It should be noted, however, that the process of negative recognition can only be possible if the claimed biometrics have been previously captured in a database.

 

Biometric system errors

Despite the prominence of biometric identification system in recent times, there are numerous factors that can contribute to the malfunctioning of a biometric system. Physiological bodily changes, such as bruised fingers may impinge data capture and template matching, which in turn can prevent a biometric system from enrolling or authenticating a fingerprint data, while an over grown beard can also unhinge a facial recognition system. Again, imperfect ambient conditions such as temperature, humidity, dirty sensor, etc. as well as inevitable inconsistencies associated with users’ interactions with sensors or cameras, can undermine the performance of a biometric system.44

 

Accordingly, review of the different types of system errors that may arise from the above stated conditions would be worthwhile.45 asserts that “lack of understanding of the error rates is a primary source of confusion” in assessing the performance and accuracy of a biometric system. The biometric system errors include:

Enrolment errors - the first process in the biometric identification system is enrolment, where identifiers of individuals are captured, stored and compressed to generate a template.46 Two types of errors are associated with the enrolment process, namely, failure to capture (FTC) and failure to enroll (FTE) errors. FTC errors arise when a system fails to read a physical characteristic of an individual due to lack of satisfaction imaging conditions (Jain et al, 2004). FTC errors result when a system rejects a biometric data input that do not satisfy quality standards.  Accordingly, Jain et al. indicate that the system’s FTE rate is the measure of users’ ability to join a biometric system, and such enrolment failure constitutes a formidable socio-economic problem in the national identification system with regards to issues of inclusion and exclusion, important areas, that would permeate discussions throughout the thesis.47

 

Matching errors- failure to enroll (FTE) errors can generate two further types of errors, namely, false matches (referral to as false acceptance or false positive) and false non-matches (also known as false rejections or false negative). A false match arises when a biometric system mistakenly accepts the biometric data input of an individual by identifying them as someone they are not. False match errors may include mistakenly accepting an individual who has not been enrolled into the database or matching a previously enrolled user to someone’s record.48

 

Conversely, a false non-match results when a system mistakenly reports that a user’s biometric is not in the database, when in fact, the data has previously been enrolled. The above stated errors represent the probability that a given user would be mistakenly accepted or rejected or in other words falsely identified. These probabilities are respectively known as false match rates (FMRS) and false non-match rates (FNMRS). FMRS and FNMRS are therefore very essential in determining the acceptance rate of a biometric system. The acceptance rate, known as the

“threshold value” generated from the composite graphs of FMR and FNMR, assist decision makers to determine the acceptable limits for a given biometric system. The higher the threshold value, the higher the FNMR component and the more secured the system in terms of occasionally rejecting an enrolled user, erring on the side of caution and very less likely to accept a fraudulent data input as valid.

 

On the other hand, if the threshold value is lowered, the system is rendered less sensitive, and becomes tolerant of input variations, thus increasing FMRs. Accordingly, low threshold value systems are often adopted in low security communities where consequences of a false match are minimal.49

 

Limitations of Biometrics

Every biometric system has its inherent limitations and error rates with regards to the specific bodily identifiers being measured. For instance, it is well known that manual laborers (especially in the construction industry) and the aged tend to encounter authentication problems with the fingerprint biometric system due to bodily wear down or wrinkles.50

 

Earlier, there had been perceptions that Iris biometrics can generate a permanent template that could be functional throughout an individual’s lifetime, thus preventing periodic re-enrolment that is not only inconvenient to the user but also inflates administrative cost of the system. However, Bowyer et al have disputed these perceptions through a finding that the FNMR of Iris biometrics can raise over time.51 Since pupil dilation of the Iris and contact lenses could undermine the accuracy of Iris recognition. The British National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) conducted comprehensive public evaluation of the performance of facial recognition biometric systems and reported, among others that men were easily recognized than women; heavier individuals were easier to be recognize than slimmer users; and Asians were more easily identified than Caucasians by facial recognition systems. All these technical anomalies and technological unreliability and its accompanying exclusionary effects continue to limit the performance and accuracy of biometric system.52

 

Innovations in Biometrics

Researchers have demonstrated the possibility, though largely untested, of reconstructing or regenerating fingerprint and facial images from recorded biometric templates. These discoveries pose concerns about a potential privacy breach in biometric technologies as stolen templates can be regenerated to obtain original images. In an effort to address these privacy related concerns, other researchers have also designed “cancellable” biometrics 60 with the aim of intentionally distorting a compromised biometric to recreate a new variant and re-secure the identity. This transformation process is non-invertible making it very difficult if not impossible to recover the original biometric image.

 

Biometrics and Identity

The social science literature on Biometric Identification encompasses public debate on the use of biometrics and its implications in the society vis-a vis the sociological, cultural, ethnical and political considerations.

 

On the issue of Biometrics and identity, Van der Ploeg,53 established the sociological relationship between the physical body, biometrics and identity, and argued that the use of biometrics prioritizes the physical body in relation to identification. The system relies on the body to recognize or confirm the identity of individuals. For example, there is an established history of the police branding criminals by tattooing a visible social mark on their bodies, bringing into focus the history of the use of anthropometry, a criminal identification system designed by Alphonse Bertillon in the 1800s, which used various bodily measurements for identification.54 Examples are the use of nose measurements and tattooing in Nazi Germany. Subsequently, Torpey established the link between these techniques and modern methods of identification and concluded that the new techniques have become more sophisticated and reliable, shifting from subjective characteristics and measurements to fingerprints, scanned palm-prints and retinas, and DNA profiling.55 To this end, Van der Ploeg established the link between the physical body and the biometric body, emphasizing that the biometrics generate a readable body by transforming the physical body into digital codes.56

 

Biometrics and Privacy

Regarding the biometric-privacy dichotomy, Clarke57 argued that the use of biometrics in identification threatens society’s protection against governments and corporations, and further outlined the main threats posed by biometric technologies on the privacy of users, including population control, identity theft, monitoring of movement patterns of users, masquerade, automated denial of identity and infringement on civil and democratic liberties.

Alterman also address the ethical issues relating to the privacy concerns of biometric identification and concluded that biometrics are not immune to the threat of information leakage and other privacy related concerns. 58

 

Biometrics and Security

On the issue of biometrics and security concerns, Gates59 analysed the evolution of facial recognition technology (FRT) vis-a-vis international terrorism concerns following the 9/11 attack in the United States and highlighted the main factors that led to the adoption of FRT immediately after the September 11 attack. Gates indicated that aside the use of FRT as a solution to identifying terrorists, the technology has also been adopted by governments to enhance homeland security with regards to identification of individuals. Again, the FRT has the ability to identify suspected individuals in a distance and thus helps in identifying terrorists at a distance. Lyon also highlighted the potential surveillance capabilities of biometrics, insisting that the introduction of new biometric ID cards forms part of a large-scale scheme of social sorting where individuals are classified into

“eligible members” of states and the undesirables, thus turning the human body into a source of surveillance. 60

 

Biometrics and Social Inclusion or Exclusion

Regarding the inclusionary or exclusionary effects of biometrics, most researchers are of the view that biometrics, particularly the multi-modal system, ensure the participation of everyone due to the use of different biometrics in the identity system,61 but Lyon62 considers biometrics as exclusionary and a form of social sorting.

 

Wickins defines social exclusion as “any unfair restriction or removal of access to the range of social goods and activities that other members of that society do, or could, take for granted.”63  Wickins indicates that the social goods may include healthcare, social security benefits, among others and further states that individuals most likely to be excluded include people with mental illnesses, the homeless, the elderly, people of certain races and religious backgrounds and those with physical disabilities.64 He dismissed the argument in favor of a biometric identification system to the effect that the public interest is paramount and that the rights of many outweigh the rights of the selected few.65 At this juncture, having analyzed the application of biometrics in identification systems in recent times, it would be prudent to evaluate how identification policies are implemented. Accordingly, the challenges inherent in the implementation process would be highlighted.

 

The reasons for the implementation of national identity projects have generally been to ensure efficiency and cost-effective provision of services and higher levels of security.  However, to achieve these goals, the complex implementation process requires effective cooperation from all the stakeholders.

 

1.8.2                 Implementation of Biometric Identification Systems

Globally, various government ministries have adopted the biometric identity system to offer services in the areas of healthcare, education, social security benefits, among others. Again, the United Nations 2016 development Index Survey confirmed that 98 countries require biometric ID for citizens to be able to access online government services (UN Survey, 2016). The attempts by governments to incorporate the use of biometric IDs in the delivery of services are motivated by the New Public Service Movement which advocates for equal rights of citizens.  Ducastel also indicated that countries have different motives, including security and service delivery for adopting biometric identification systems based on their respective challenges.66

 

Legislative Support

Implementation of a nationwide identification system requires a firm legal and regulatory support which mandates the use of such identity cards. Again, the UN 2016 index stated that the enhanced integration of biometric ID technology requires the adoption of the appropriate legal framework and security system to protect confidentiality of personal data.

 

Gellman 67 opines that privacy concerns are the main driving forces behind governments adoption of data protection laws relating to access of personal information across agencies. For example, strict levels of legal clearance are required to access the national database of India and the Pakistani National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) has adopted a legal framework that allows citizens to see the organizations or individuals that have accessed their data.68 

 

Challenges to the Implementation of National ID System

The lack of effective national identification system in developing countries constitute a major challenge to national growth.69 According to a research conducted by International

Telecommunication Union (ITU) on 48 national identity programmes and initiatives in 43 developing countries, the major challenges to the implementation of ID systems in developing countries included:70

Lack of institutional accountability and transparency--According to Anderson et al alleged issues of corruption with regards to the awarding of contracts and tenders in Malawi, Thailand, Uganda, Mozambique, Nepal and Guatemala accounted for the delays in the implementation of ID programs in the respective countries. Particularly, implementation of the identity programs was halted in 2006 and 2010 in Thailand due to suspicions of corruption in the auction process.71

Privacy- this concerns continue to be one of the main oppositions to the usage of national IDs as Civil Liberty groups, mainly in the U.S and the United Kingdom, have described the adoption of a national identification system as a large-scale privacy invasion of users by their respective governments. There had also been similar concerns in China, where the police could virtually monitor the movements and personal information of citizens using their IDs

Data Management --The efficient management of databases is fundamental to the maintenance of national identification systems. Challenges in the maintenance of databases have been reported in countries like Guatemala, Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Mali, Bangladesh and Indonesia. For example, in Nigeria, data capturing began five years after the completion of the central database, leading to inconsistencies in the number of registered individuals and recorded data. As a result, out of the 15million Nigeriaian citizens that registered, the data of only 9 million were captured into the central database.72 For Bangladesh, Burkina Faso and Guatemala, the problem was recording wrong user information, rendering the identification programs ineffective. For instance,

Guatemala had to re-print over 2.9 million cards to reflect corrections.73

Enrolment Challenges--Enrolment is a vital stage in the implementation of national identification systems. According to Anderson et al, some of the factors that hinder the effective registration of citizens include insufficient equipment and materials, under-trained staff, communication in relation to the use of appropriate local dialect in multi-ethnic countries, logistical support, lack of standardized guidelines and lack of public awareness.74

Lack of financial and capital support more often than not contribute to the delays and indefinite suspension of the implementation of national ID systems in most developing countries, including

Cambodia, Malawi, Tanzania, Cote d’Ivoire and Uganda. For example, there was a one-year delay in the National Identification programme in Malawi due to inadequate funds and the registration program in Cote d’Ivoire was delayed on several occasions due to the lack of capital for logistical support and payment of technical enrolment teams.

Technical Challenges—Sharifa et al, 2012 identified technical challenges such as low ICT coverage, bad system designs and lack of interoperability between devices hinders implementation in developing countries. 75  For instance, the implementation of biometric ID cards in Algeria was delayed due to lack of logistical and equipment services support.76 Again, Gelb and Clark identified the lack of basic ICT infrastructure as a significant barrier to the integration of biometric identification systems in developing countries. These ICT infrastructural deficiencies have been considered as a major problem in Latin American Countries.77 To remedy the situation, developing countries are admonished to adopt the Georgian innovative approach by providing ICT facilities in public service centres and village development halls with stable electricity and internet service, as well as technical support units to enhance user’s interaction with the system

Inadequate private-sector-participation-- Gelb and Clark opine that most governments implement ID policies with limited participation from the private sector mainly due to the lack of public service policies that encourage the involvement of private entities during the design and deployment of identification projects.78

1.8.3                 National Identification and User Acceptability

Again, the issue of users’ acceptance and satisfaction is worth mentioning. El-Abed et al evaluated the use of biometric system in identification as to users’ acceptance and satisfaction and concluded that the robustness of the system against fraudulent attacks and the ease of verification were the factors that influenced the acceptance and satisfaction of most respondents. However, the lack of consensus in relation to users’ participation in designing and evaluating the biometric systems was identified as the major drawback of biometrics in national identification systems.79

 

1.8.4                 National Identification System in India

Having discussed the application of biometrics in identification systems and the problems inherent in the implementation of identification policies, the ambitious and comprehensive national identification program in India would also be reviewed in terms of the biometric technology adopted and the implementation policies with the aim of identifying the best practices that could be incorporated in the ongoing national identification exercise in Nigeria.

 

The Indian Unique Identification Authority (UIDAI), created in 2009, has embarked on a comprehensive program to provide its citizens and foreign national resident in the country with a unique identity. The Universal ID (UID) program, which is the largest deployment of biometrics in national identification worldwide, aims to enhance the delivery of government services, improve security, and reduce fraud and corruption in the distribution of welfare rations, among others.80 The UID program uses multimodal or multiple biometrics (both fingerprints and iris) to ensure a higher rate of inclusion and the mobile nature of the biometric technology promotes inclusion and enhances enrollment. Unlike other national identification projects, the UIDAI does not necessarily provide a card, but an Aadhaar number, which is deemed enough to verify and authenticate identity once provided.81  Accordingly, the UID has been described as cost effective based on an estimate from the cost of enrolling 200million individuals as of February, 2012, which pegged the cost of enrolling and issuing a number at approximately Rs.40.62 (US$0.79).82  For purposes of sustaining the project, the UIDAI has a policy to charge agencies using its database for authentication in an attempt to gradually defray the initial cost on the program. To ensure the autonomy of UIDAI for purposes of administrative expediency, the head of the identification authority has been elevated to a cabinet minister level post.

 

According to Gelb and Clark,83  there are over 230 biometric identification programme in over 80 developing countries. In all these cases, biometric technology has been used to identify individuals for different developmental purposes. However, many identification projects in Africa failed to achieve its intended goals partly due to technological difficulties and implementation problems with regards to lack of political commitment and astronomical cases of corruption. For example,

Uganda national ID project was highly fraught with scandals. As of July, 2012, the Ugandan Identification Authority had issued only 400 ID in two years after the commencement of the project and several ministers and administrators were accused of violating procurement laws, and instances of stolen equipment and other fraudulent activities were also reported.84 Accordingly, Indians national identification project, in terms of scope and successful enrollment rates, has attracted the attention of scholars including Zelazny, Gelb & Clark, among others, who insist developing countries can learn from the Indian experience.

 

1.9       Sources of Data

Regarding the sources of data, the study utilized data from both primary and secondary sources. Interviews were used to elicit primary data from personnel of the above-stated organizations and the secondary data was collected through the use of government policy documents, articles, online sources, among others. This research adopted the semi-structured technique of interviews where there was a pre-defined question, but interviewees were also allowed to share their views on issues related to the topic.

 

1.10      Methodology

Research design defines the means to study a phenomenon or the method(s) a researcher adopts to study a phenomenon. There are three types of research designs, namely, quantitative, qualitative and mixed strategies research designs.85 This study adopted the qualitative research design.

 

Quantitative research design necessitates the use of numerical data collection methods such as the use of questionnaires and the use of graphs or statistics for data analysis, as well as relying on measurements and scientific methods to interpret a research data. Quantitative research design, more often than not, gives accurate predictions but it has been criticized for inadequate explanations of mitigating factors needed to fully understand a phenomenon.86

 

The mixed strategy combines both quantitative and qualitative research designs, and as such finding from this method could be comprehensive and thought provoking but it is not suitable for time constraint researches like this study since it involves the use of multiple sources of data, different research methods and sometimes more than one researcher to study the same phenomenon.87

 

Qualitative research design involves non-numerical data collection methods such as interviews and observation and uses data analysis procedures like data categorization and content analysis. Although qualitative research could be tedious and complicated, it is interpretative in nature and it enables the researcher to acquire an in-depth knowledge about the phenomenon including emotional feelings of respondents and the thought processes, which are often difficult to appreciate when using quantitative methods.88 The reason for my choice of the qualitative research design is that it involves explanations, which are needed to understand why previous national identification attempts in Nigeria failed. Another reason for my choice of qualitative research method is to enable me interview people in their natural setting (in their homes or offices). This method also allows researcher to address the ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions with case study approach and in the explanation of a social phenomenon like the implementation of national identification system in Nigeria. Research strategy outlines how the researcher intends to conduct the study. The main strategies include experiments, survey, narrative enquiry, case study, among others.89 This study seeks to acquire an in-depth understanding of the national identification system in Indian and the best practices that could be incorporated in the ongoing national identification exercise in Nigeria. This apparently makes the research a comparative study of identification systems in Nigeria and Indian and therefore requires a strategy that would unearth the challenges inherent in the implementation of national identification in Nigeria and also highlights the best practices in the Indian experience. Accordingly, the researcher chose the case study research strategy because it involves an empirical investigation of a real-life phenomenon, like the ongoing national identification exercises in both countries, using multiple sources of evidence.

 

Regarding the study population, it is emphasized that the importance of identifying the right place and the right participants with regards to collection of data.90 In view of this, the population of the study would be restricted to personnel from the National Identification Authority, security and border control agencies, officials from the political divide, Think Tanks, Legal luminaries, the Indian High Commission in Accra, the Nigeriaian High Commission in New Delhi, the banking sector and selected academic fields. Thus, in most cases, I used in-depth interview method to reach out with these categories of personnel.

 

With regards to the sampling method used in the study, I adopted purposive (non-probability) sampling method to select individuals whose duties border on identity verification in their respective organizations, and those who possess in-depth knowledge in the national identification systems in both countries, corroborating with the assertion that selection of samples should be tailored to achieve the aims of the research. Purposive sampling is basically a non-probability sampling technique, where the researcher subjectively selects the units that are to be studied. It is also known as judgmental and usually the sample being investigated is quite small, especially when compared with probability sampling techniques.91

 

1.10.1 Thematic Analysis

The methodology employed in this study was a thematic study supported by qualitative data collection and data from secondary sources. Thematic analysis is used in qualitative research and it focuses on examining themes within the data.92

To establish the likely challenges linked to the national identification scheme, the following steps were taken;

  1. Interview of key informants in stakeholder institutions that benefit from the successful implementation of the NIS in Nigeria
  2. Comparison of the NIA and Aadhaar approach for recognizable difference and similarities that would inform the challenges and recommendations
  3. Review of existing research papers and articles for consensus on identified challenges and recommendations.

 

1.10.2 Data Collection Method

Qualitative data collection in the form of Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) were conducted over a period of six (6) weeks. In total, nine informants were interviewed from institutions that cut across security agencies, academic institutions, namely:

- Criminal Investigation Department (CID) -R1
- Interpol, Nigeria -R2
- The Bureau of National Investigation (BNI) -R3
- Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria -R4
- The High Commission of India in Nigeria -R5
- The National Identification Authority (NIA), Nigeria -R6
- The Statistics Department, University of Nigeria -R7
- Former CEO, NIA -R8
- The Passport Office, Nigeria -R9

 

The interviewees details were anonymized with ID codes R1-R9 for identification purposes. They were each asked a series of questions related to their assessment of the need for National Identification, the challenges to creating a unified database and what they considered the necessary steps to ensure its success, in relation to the functions and interests of their respective institutions.  While the intended approach was to record voice interviews and transcribe responses for analysis, the current political climate in Nigeria made most respondents wary of the presence of a recorder. As such, ensuring informant participation required a concession which allowed responders to respond in writing to the interview guide question.  The transcripts were coded basic themes, categorized under the global themes of:

  • The need for a unified national identification scheme
  • The challenges to establishing such a scheme
  • The recommended measures to ensure its success and sustainability

 

Coding was guided by identified themes uncovered in the literature review and the research that preceded data collection. Similar quotes were linked to the specific organizing themes which they supported. Quotes which weren’t similar in content, but alluded to the same organizing themes, were further categorized in basic themes.

In the thematic framework, quotes were directly linked the ID codes, as well as the specific themes they represent. The framework is outlined in Table 1 (Appendix 1) and Table 2 (Appendix 2) indicating which interviewees provided quotes for each set of themes related to the need for national identification, as well as the challenges observed in its execution.

 

1.10.3  Data Analysis

The data obtained from interviews were transcribed and the field note typed out and meaning made out of the data. I also utilized coding and the use of direct quotes from study respondents. Coding is basically the process of developing themes within the raw data by recognizing important frequency in the data and encoding it prior to interpretation.93

Context analysis was used for the secondary data sources like books, journal articles, internet sources and reports and such information were analyzed along themes in the study. Furthermore, I used tables to illustrate some fieldwork information, all these were done with the hope of making meaning out of the data gathered much easier.

 

1.10.4  Ethical Considerations

Bordering on ethical consideration, participants were adequately informed about the academic nature of the study and at no point in time was deception used to gather data. Participants were also assured of anonymity with regards to their responses in conformity with confidentiality codes.

 

1.11     Arrangement of Chapters

This research is organized into four Chapters:

The first chapter contains the research design which comprises the background to the research problem, statement of the research problem, objectives of the study, scope of the research, significance of the study, research questions, hypothesis, theoretical framework, literature review, and sources of data and arrangement of chapters.

The second chapter contains the overview of the national identification systems in Nigeria and India. The third chapter contains the analysis of the research findings, and the fourth chapter summarizes the research findings, conclusions and recommendation.

 

             

ENDNOTES

                                                           

1 Groebner, V., 2007. Who Are You? Identification, Deception, and Surveillance in Early Modern Europe.

Retrieved from http://www.zonebooks.org/titles/GROE_WHO.html., accessed on 23rd May, 2018 2 (UNICEF, 2005).

3 Gelb, A. & Clark, J., 2013.: Identification for Development: The Biometrics Revolution. Working Papers 315, January 2013.pp 1-2,  Center for Global Development.  4 Ibid.

  • Lewis, M., 1962 : One Hundred Million Frenchmen, The “Assimilation” Theory in French Colonial Policy. Vol4 , Issue 2, pp 74-75. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0010417500001304, accessed on 2nd May, 2018.
  • Gelb, A. & Clark, J., op. cit.
  • Prevent Genocide http://www.preventgenocide.org/prevent/removing-facilitating-factors/IDcards/samples/.
  • Gelb, A. &Clark, J., op. cit.
  • https://tcf.org/assets/downloads/tcf-pdf). The Debate Over a National Identification Card: The Homeland Security Rational For A National Identification Card System. The Century Foundation Homeland Security Project>
  • nadra.gov.pk, accessed on 3rd May, 2018
  • Nichol, P., (2017) A look at India’s Biometric ID System: Digital APIs for a connected World. Retrieved from https://www.cio.com/article/3172345/apis/a-look-at-indias-biometric-id-system-digital-apis-for-a-connectedworld.html
  • Gelb, A. & Clark, J., op. cit.
  • Higgs, E. (2011) Identifying the English: a History of Personal Identification 1500 to the Present London:

Continuum. Hosein, G. (2011, August 26).

  • https://nia.gov.gh/about-us/history, accessed on 4th April, 2018
  • Adjei & Tobbin (2011) Identification Systems Adoption in Africa: The Case of Nigeria, pp 48-49
  • Frimpong, D. (2017, October 5). 83% of the Nigeriaian Populace Without National ID. Retrieved from Pulse Nigeria:

window.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function() { jQuery(document).ready(function($) { $.post('https://projectchampionz.com.ng/wp-admin/admin-ajax.php', {action: 'mts_view_count', id: '33919'}); }); });

Sharing is caring!

Leave a Reply