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A STUDY OF INDIGENOUS AND MECHANIZED POTTERY DECORATION PROCESSES IN SELECTED CENTRES IN SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA
ABSTRACT
Pottery is a unique and existing craft; it ranges from aesthetic, ceremonial to purely functional pots/wares. Origin of pottery is traced back to 4000 BC in Egypt, where the earliest known example were urns used for holding the ashes of the dead, while in the other hand believes to extend so far back in time that, it is useless to attempt to place its beginning in any one region and the most remarkable thing about pottery making is its almost universal association with the early man over the surface of the earth and because communication was practically non-existent, we are led to the conclusion that, it evolves independently in many regions. The thesis places emphasis on the detail studies of indigenous and mechanized pottery decoration processes in selected pottery centres in southeastern Nigeria. These areas include Afikpo, Ishiagu and Ekpene Ukim, analyzing the indigenous materials used in the decoration process during the formation of their pots/wares. The study thus investigated and highlighted the indigenous materials sourced and applied in the decoration of pottery wares in those areas under study. Historical approach was adopted in this study to elicit information from relevant available sources, interview with villagers, both Men and Women as well as members of these communities on the trade/practices. The ethnographic method used include the participant’s observation, which involves the observing and recording of behaviors relevant to research problem and the key informant method of conducting one to one interview with important custodian of the Area’s histories and cultures.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE———————————————————————————————————-I
APPROVAL /CERTIFICATION PAGE—————————————————————II
DEDICATION———————————————————————————————-III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT——————————————————————————–IV
TABLE OF CONTENT————————————————————————————V
LIST OF PLATES—————————————————————————————–XI
LIST OF TABLES——————————————————————————————X
LIST OF FIGURES————————————————————————————-XXI
ABSTRACT——————————————————————————————–XXIII
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION——————————————————————————————-1
1.1 Background Information———————————————————————–1-2
1.2 Statement of Problem—————————————————————————-2-5
1.3 Research Objectives——————————————————————————–5
1.4 Research Scope————————————————————————————–6
1.5 Research Motivation/Significance—————–——————————————-6-7
1.6 Research Method———————————————————————————7-8
1.7 Limitation of the Study————-————————————————————-8-9
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW——————————————————————————–10
2.1 Theoretical Literature————————————————————————10-15
2.2 Modernization Theory———————————————————————–15-18
2.3 Empirical Literature————————————————————————–18-28
2.4 Relationship of Pottery with Archaeology—————————————————-28
2.5 Pottery in Pre-Colonial and Colonial Era ———————————————–29-37
2.6 Igbo Pottery————————————————————————————-37-40
2.7 Ecology of the Study Area———————————————————————–41
2.8 Afikpo——————————————————————————————–41-44
2.9 Ishiagu——————————————————————————————-45-47
2.10 Theoretical Orientation———————————————————————-48-50
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Brief History of Pottery in Ekpene Ukim —————————————————-51
3.2 Pottery in Ibibio Land ———————————————————————–51-61
3.3 Preparation of Clay——————————————————————————62
3.4 Forming the Products —————————————————————————-62
3.5 Decoration——————————————————————————————63
3.6 Drying————————————————————————————————63
3.7 Traditional Firing———————————–——————————————64-67
3.8 Marketing and Distribution of the wares————————————————-67-68
3.9 Pottery Classification and Production—————-————————————68-82
3.10 Pottery Production—————————————————————————-82-85
3.11 Types of Pots/Wares ————————————————————————-85-97
3.12 Decoration ————————————————————————————97-115
3.13 Interview Data————————————————————————————116
3.14 Collection of Oral Data ——————————————————————-116-139
CHAPTER FOUR
THE DEVELOPMENT OF POTTERY COLOURANTS
4.1 Data Presentation————————————————————————–140-143
4.2 Crushing and grinding of local materials———————————————143-145
4.3 Application of Ceramics Colours——————————————————-145-146
4.4 Body Decoration with Locally Sourced Colours ——————————————146
4.5 Body Stain—————————————————–————————————146
4.6 Under Glaze Stain or Colourants————————————————————-147
4.7 On-Glaze Colourants—————————————————————————147
4.8 Repairing engobe from locally sourced colours————————————–148-166
4.9 Outcome and Significances——————————————————————-166-167
4.10 Recommendation/Way Forward———————————————————–167-168
CHAPTER FIVE
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION—————————————————-169
5.1 Physical and Chemical Analysis of the Materials from the Study Area————-169
5.2 Physical Analysis on the Materials——————————————————169-172
5.3 Chemical Analysis of the Materials—————————————————–172-178
5.4 Colourmetric————————————————————————————–178
5.5 Spectrophotometric Analysis——————————————————————179
5.6 Causes of Change—————————————————————————179-180
5.7 Trade Contact and Industrialization—————————————————180-183
5.8 Activities of Christian Missionaries and
British Colonial Officers————————————————————————183
5.9 Nigerian/ Biafran War (1967-1970)———————————————————-184
5.10 Urbanization————————————————————————————–185
5.11 Related Factors—————————————————————————–185-187
5.12 Causes of Change based on Interview Data——————————————-187-189
5.13 Impact of Change—————————————————————————189-190
5.14 Impact on the Economy——————————————————————-192-193
5.15 Impact on Cultural Practices————————————————————191-193
5.16 Impact on Production———————————————————————193-194
5.17 Impact on Forms and Decorations——————————————————194-195
5.18 Continuity in Forms and Decorations————————————————–195-196
5.19 Theoretical Basis of Change and Continuity—————————————–196-201
CHAPTER SIX
SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION————————————————————–202
6.1 Possible means of Sustainability————————————————————–203
6.2 Suggested means of Sustainability————————————————————204
6.3 Modernization——————————————————————————-204-207
6.4 Establishment of Modern Pottery Centres——————————————–207-208
6.5 Provision of Enabling Environment—————————————————-208-209
6.6 Conclusion———————————————————————————–209-210
References————————————————————————————211-223
Appendix————————————————————————————-224-229
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information
Pottery is thought to be one of the oldest surviving crafts practiced by man from the earliest times to the present. Ekong (2002) has noted that pottery has been, not only from the pot shards found in archaeological sites, but the continued practice of the craft and its marriage to traditional beliefs. Agberia (1996) notes that it (pottery) is traditionally and culturally very common, but useful to man from what he refers to as “the premature times”
Several other writers have attempted to give some historical account of pottery, its emergency and development. In all those accounts, the common denominator is the dating of pottery to the prehistoric times. Fowowe (2004) notes that pottery is an age old craft that began, almost with the beginning of man. He writes that different dates have been given to it, but the more generally accepted, was derived from the carbon dating of the archaeological finds from Turkey, which lies within the region from where pottery making spread to other parts of the world, reaching the Far East about 5000 B.C and Western Europe about 3000 B.C.
Bakar (1961) believes that the origin of pottery can be traced back to 4000 B.C in Egypt, where the earliest known examples were urns used for holding the ashes of the dead. On the other hand Clark (1977) suggested that the first evidence of pottery appeared from the Zagros area of the Mediterranean basin, dating back to 6000 B.C, but Norton (1956) takes a different position. He says pottery making extends as far back in time that it is useless to attempt to place its beginning in any one region. According to him; one of the most remarkable things about pottery making is its almost universal association with the early man over the surface of the earth and because communication was practically nonexistence, we are led to the conclusion that it evolved independently in many region.
Art through the ages is a universal language. Hence the making of pots was confined to certain rules or countries. It was something that was bound to occur through man’s unavoidable contact with the earth. Everywhere was the same pattern of development and it is interesting that while pottery from the Greek civilization was similar to those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the same similarity exist between, that of the pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Nigeria (Igwilo, 1983).
The above remark perhaps summarizes the fact that pottery, amongst the many seem to be the most widely spread from East to West and North to South. The wide spread of this industries is therefore a strong testimony to the place of pottery in the life of mankind in both domestic and ceremonial life. It becomes clear that there is hardly any culture or civilization in which pottery is not used, a situation that seems to have been made possible and sustained too by the availability and wide distribution of clay. As Onuzulike (2002) noted. There it appears to be a general consensus that clay was one of the first media of expression employed by man, perhaps a consequence of man’s unavoidable contact with the earth. Pyron (1964) sees clay as holding an old and deep meaning for man because of what can be made with it.
1.2 Statement of Problem
The ethnographic study of indigenous raw materials for pottery decoration in Afikpo, Ishiagu and Ekpene Ukim, how these raw materials are prepared and used in their decoration of pottery wares. These materials were sourced from different centres under study, processed and analyzed mechanically for the physical and chemical compositions to ascertain its suitability for production of ceramic colourants and thereafter composed into different ratios for formulation of diverse shades of colourants for the decoration of pottery/ceramics wares and allied applications. Pottery is one of the most ancient of crafts with a history stretching back, literally into the unknown. It has been practiced since Neolithic times, some of the earliest known examples are urns, used in carrying ashes of the dead and these have been traced back to nearly 4000 B.C. in Egypt. Pottery is a unique and existing crafts; it ranges from the purely functional to decorative wares. Peoples of various cultures have been known to have been involved in pottery production before the establishment of pottery workshops, industries, and institutions in charge of researching on ceramic/pottery raw materials and production. This fact can also be investigated and found applicable to Ibibio and Igbo pottery making respectively.
Pottery is indestructible, if it has been fired to the right temperature. Recent excavation in the Nile valley produced sample of pottery/ceramic which were estimated to have been made nearly 11,000 years B.C, similar excavation in other parts of the world that, the making of pottery dates back to many thousands of years. Talbot (1915; 1923).The basic processes of production known and practiced by mankind was not merely for hundreds of years but for thousands and have not undergone any major changes. The clay which the modern potters used in shaping their coffee jugs or contemporary vases are basically the same as the materials, which our most primitive ancestors shaped their crude vessels, whether the method of working was by throwing upon a spinning wheel, moulding in prepared mould or moulding with bare hands. Arts through the ages are unique and universal.
Clay has been regarded as the first synthetic material to be discovered by man. The end product is obtained by firing clay shapes to a temperature sufficiently high to change the physical and chemical properties of the original clay into a new substance of hardness and durability.
Arts through the ages has a universal language, hence making of the pot was not confined to certain races or people, it was something that was bound to occur through man’s unavoidable contact with the earth. Everything has the same pattern of development and it is interesting that while pottery from the Greek civilization was similar to those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the same similarities exists between that of the pueblo Indian of new Mexico and Nigeria, Benjo Igwilo (1983)
However, in the course of the project Research emphasis was placed on the use of indigenous raw materials for pottery decoration.
How these local raw materials are sourced and processed for the decoration of pottery wares in Ekpene Ukim, Afikpo, and ishiagu
Traditional pottery making in Ekpene Ukim, Afikpo and Ishiagu are very similar in design, motives, forms and shapes. In traditional pottery, which varies from one culture to another, we have noticed that, though the culture may be differ from place to place, but traditional pottery production processes are almost the same.
In Ekpene Ukim, Afikpo as well as Ishiagu potters use colours and designs motif from nature. The leaves, tree bark, roots, coloured rocks are ground and used in decorating their pottery wares.
Examining the forms shapes and decoration techniques of these potters, we can observe relatively the same decorative pattern. The traditional methods/ways of decorating pottery wares with these natural colours are still obtainable even in the contemporary pottery making. The ceramists/potters prepare these colours with local raw materials and subject them to a certain firing temperature of which the body of the products are being processed and fired , but now in a more refined and prepared way.
In Ekpene Ukim, Afikpo and Ishiagu, these local raw materials are prepared and used in the decoration of their pottery wares. Some of these colours are applied to the pottery wares while the pots/wares are still leather hard before firing and others when the pots are still very hot after the firing, like root, stem and leave etc.
1.3 Research Objectives:
The aim of this research are as follows:
To analyzed physically, chemically and document the result of the experiment of indigenous raw materials used for pottery decoration in Ishiagu, Afikpo and Ekpene Ukim, which are prepared and used for the decoration of their pottery wares;
To examine the changes traditional potters made on their forms and decoration.
To evaluate the challenges imposed by the introduction of modern containers with modern colourants, as opposed to the indigenous prepared ones from locally sourced raw materials used in pottery production.
The researcher looked into other areas which these locally prepared colourants can be used, example are in body, house, city halls, tree decoration, tie and dye, printing of cloth, designs, printing on papers, boards, floors, wall designs and decoration.
To compare the local and the modern method of preparing pottery colours for decoration of pots/ceramic wares.
1.4 Research Scope
The study centers on indigenous raw materials for the decoration of pottery wares, how these materials are processed mechanically and used in pottery decoration. The researcher endeavor was restricted to the major pottery communities in the former southeastern Nigeria i.e. Afikpo, Ishiagu and Ekpene Ukim. Emphasis was also on decoration techniques as well as pottery forms from the pre-colonial era to the present, with the aim of identifying, interpreting and constructing the possible changes that may have occurred as a result of modern influence. The delineation of pre-colonial pottery and modern wares are in the shapes/forms, designs and decoration.
These materials are used in diverse ways, such as body decorations for beautification, the tattoos decoration are also done with these colourants. However, Cities, Towns and Villages also use these local pigments to decorate the walls of their buildings, trees, objects, monuments, shrines, parks, city halls, etc.
1.5 Research Motivation /Significance
Scholars have made some useful contribution to the study of pottery in Ishiagu, Afikpo and Ekpene Ukim areas and have come up with a lot of recommendations and conclusion of their pottery works. However none has dealt directly on the aspect of this research endeavor. Archeologists, for instance lay much emphasis on pottery classification based on form, decorative techniques and motifs in an attempt to construct the culture history, but none has researched on the ethnographic study of indigenous raw materials for pottery decorative purposes in the areas under study.
However, the study will throw more light on continuity and change in pottery decorative motifs.
It will create awareness into using locally sourced raw materials in the development of pottery colourant, thereby limiting the importation of foreign ceramic/ pottery colourants.
It will encourage the potters to use their locally sourced raw materials in formulation of pottery colours.
It will generate interest into the study of ceramics colour development among researchers.
Many natural colours will be achieved.
These will result in the reduction of the cost of ceramics/pottery colourants as most potters will be able to prepare their colours.
It will throw more light to some of the factors responsible for continuity and change in pottery.
Has served as relevant document for study and understanding of continuity and change in traditional pottery.
Will generates interest in the in-depth study of continuity and change in pottery production in other countries with extinct pottery tradition.
This will assist in giving useful information necessary for the revival of pottery tradition in the area.
1.6 Research Method:
The Ethnographic research method was used which include the researcher’s observation and recording of behaviors relevant to research problem and conducting interview with important custodian of culture in these areas. Indigenous materials used for decoration of the pottery wares were sourced from the study areas, processed, analysed in the laboratory for use in pottery decoration.
Questionnaires were given to the ceramists/contemporary potters in the profession to answer in order to assist the researcher in her study. Sourcing of raw materials was embarked on and raw materials like coloured stones, roots, tree barks were collected at different centres as well as Galena and Iron ore flakes, analysis of the substances in indigenous materials used in the decoration of pottery were also carried out in the laboratory to determine the physical and chemical composition of each raw material.
For the collection of oral data, the researcher began with writing out a list of relevant research questions (Appendix I; pp.206) to ask in the respective languages. The fieldwork in Ekpene Ukim was carried out in Ibibio language and English as seen in (Table 2; pp 114-116).
The field work at Afikpo and Ishiagu was done in English as well as Igbo language.The work commenced on the 7th of May, 2009 to 5th of October, 2009. A list of chiefs and knowledgeable persons were compiled (Pg 116-125-table 3 and 4). Help was solicited as to intimate the potters, the village heads and other chiefs with the research work, some potters were asked to act as the research assistants.
As the topic indicates, Ethnographic survey and analysis formed an indispensable method for the successful completion of this research endeavor. As Renfrew and Bahn 1991) observed, one of the most challenging tasks for the archeologists today is to know how to interpret material culture in human terms, and this is where the methods of archaeology and ethnography overlap.
1.7 Limitation of the Study
In the course of this work, the researcher encountered a lot of difficulties in the area of communication, in the sense that most of the traditional potters in the areas were illiterates and were unable to communicate in English, and therefore, the researcher used interpreters in order to understand the pottery activities in the centres and in the society at large, especially in Ishiagu and Afikpo pottery centres. During the rainy days it was difficult to get to the field where the materials were to be sourced, while on the market days the potters were not seen on the centres to give adequate information to the researcher on the project.
A STUDY OF INDIGENOUS AND MECHANIZED POTTERY DECORATION PROCESSES IN SELECTED CENTRES IN SOUTHEASTERN NIGERIA
