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DEVELOPMENT OF LOW-TEMPERATURE GLAZES FROM SELECTED RAW MATERIALS IN BENUE STATE, NIGERIA
ABSTRACT
The development of glazes in the Nigeria is a challenging issue to the ceramic industry and has resulted in the dependence on imported glazes, which is not easy for the ceramic industries and the ceramists. This has become necessary therefore, to explore the possibility of low-temperature glazes using locally sourced raw materials for ceramic production in the Country. The objectives of the study are to: identity and source, for ceramic raw materials in Benue State for, the formulationof low- temperature glazes; carry out chemical analysisof the selected raw materials, formulate low-temperature glazes using locally sourced materials for ceramic production and test; and evaluate the effect of the formulated glazes on ceramic wares. Data collection for thestudy was from the primary and secondary sources. Dogo Red Clay, Groundnut Shells and Locust Beans Wood were sourced for, fromwithin the area of study; while experimental research design was adopted for the study. The experiments carried out were analysed and discussed. Various stages conducted were documented and their discussions are presented. Among the findings of the study; the chemical analysis carried out shows that the major element found in Dogo Red Clay is iron oxide Fe203which acts as flux in bodies and glazes at high temperature. Groundnut Shells Ash and Locust Beans Wood Ashcontain potassium oxide (K2O) and calcium oxide(CaO) which acts as flux to lower the melting temperatures from 1200°C down to 900°C. Thelow-temperature glazes formulated using locally sourced raw materials shows that tri-axial blend tested fails to meet the desire to produce low-temperature glaze, the lineblend was successful in achieving lowtemperature glazes. The study found that there is a similarity in the temperature range of between 900°c ,100°cand 1100°c, indicating varying shades of black, dark brown, yellow, lemon green, while at 1160°c the reddish colour was found. The study recommends that, the Dogo Red Clay should be tested on other bodies with other fluxes to set different effect of colour. Also, there is need to carry out further studies using Dogo Red Clay for the development high temperature glazes. Through this study, it is observed that this research was able to establish that the Dogo Red Clay, Groundnut Shells Ash and Locust Beans Wood Ash, line blend at 900%, 1000%, 1100% and 1160% was successful for use on ceramic wares. This research was able to fire at low – temperature range of 900%, 1000%,1100% and 1160% to achieved diverse colourationof glossy, some reddish, black, yellowish brown, dark with gold and purple colour
TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page – – – – – – – – – -i
Declaration – – – – – – – – – -ii
Certification – – – – – – – – – -iii
Dedication – – – – – – – – – -iv
Acknowledgement – – – – – – – – -v
Abstract – – – – – – – – – -vii
Table of contents – – – – – – – – -viii
List of figures – – – – – – – – – -xiii
List of Table – – – – – – – – – – -xiv
List of plates – – – – – – – – – -xv
Abbreviations and notations – – – – – – – -xvi
Definition of terms – – – – – – – – -xvii
CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.0 Introduction – – – – – – – – -1
1.1 Statement of the Problem – – – – – – -3
1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Study – – – – – -4
1.3 Research Questions – – – – – – – -4
1.4 Justification of the Study – – – – – – -5
1.5 Significance of the Study – – – – – – -5
1.6 Scope of the Study – – – – – – – -6
1.7 Delimitation to the Study – – – – – – -6 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction – – – – – – – – -7
2.2 Historical Background of Glazes – – – – – -7
2.3 Clay – – – – – – – – – -8
2.4 Earthenware Clays – – – – – – – -10
2.5 Earthenware – – – – – – – – – -10
2.6 Clay Bodies – – – – – – – – -11
2.7 Glazes – – – – – – – – – -12
2.8 Glaze Composition – – – – – – – -13
2.9 Types of Earthenware glazes – – – – – – -14
2.10 Low-Temperature Glazes – – – – – – -14
2.11 Production of Earthenware- – – – – – – -15
2.12 Correcting a Formulated Earthenware Body – – – – -15
2.13 Characteristics and Properties of Earthenware Clay – – – -16
2.14 Earthenware Glazes – – – – – – – -16
2.15 Fluxes for Earthenware – – – – – – -17
2.16 Frits – – – – – – – – – -17
2.17 Fluxes used in Low-Temperature Glazes – – – – -18
2.18 Firing – – – – – – – – – -18
2.19 Conclusion- – – – – – – – – – 19
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Materials and Methods – – – – – – -20
3.1.1 Sourcing of raw materials – – – – – – -20
3.2 Population of the Research — – – – – – -24
3.3 Beneficiation of the raw materials – – – – – -24
3.3.1 Dogo Red Clay- – – – – – – – -24
3.3.2 Groundnut Shells Ash – – – – – – – -25
3.3.3 Locusts Beans Wood Ash – – – – – – -25
3.4 Chemical analysis of a sample – – – – – -26
3.5 Formulation of Low-Temperature Glazes using Tri-axial Blend – -26
3.5.1 Formulation of Low-Temperature Glazes Using Line Blend- – -29
3.5.2 Production of Test Bars – – – – – – -30
3.6 Determination of Maturing Temperature – – – – -30
3.7 Property Test – – – – – – – – -30
3.7.1 Crazing Test (C424) – – – – – – – -31
3.7.1.1 Imperviousness Test (C126-13) – – – – – -31
3.7.1.2 Hardness and Abrasion Resistance Test (ISO10545-6) – – – -31
3.8 Preparation of Slip for Casting – – – – – -31
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.0Result and Discussion – – – – – – – – – – -32
4.1 Chemical Analysis of Dogo Red Clay, Groundnut Shells Ashes, Locust Beans Ashes Rafin
- Kukura and Kankara – – – – – – – – -33
4.2 Result of Body Formulation – – – – – – -34
4.3 Calculation for the Low-Temperature Glaze Development – — -35
4.4 Result of Tri-axial Blend Test of 36 Members Fired at 900˚C – -36
4.5 Result of Tri-axial Test Blend of 36 Fired at 1000˚C – – – -37
4.6 Results of Tri-axial Blend Test of 36 Fired at 1100˚C – – – -38
4.7 Results of Tri-axial Blend Test of 36 Fired at 1160˚C – – -39
4.8 Results of Line Blend Test of 11 (Eleven) Members at 900°C – -40
4.9 Results of Test Line Blend of 11 Members at 1000°C – – -40
4.10 Results of Test Line Blends of 11 Members at 1100°C – – -41
4.11 Results of Test Line Blend of 11 (Eleven) Members at 1160°C – – -41
4.12 Plaster Mould Making and Production of Wares – – – -42
4.13 Procedures Used for Measurement of Low-Temperature Glaze Materials -46
4.14 Result of Glaze Formulation — – – – – – -47
4.15 Glaze Application – – – – – – – -49
4.16 Result of Firing – – – – – – – -53
4.17 Findings – – – – – – – – -56
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS – – – – – 58
5.1 Summary – – – – – – – – -58
5.2 Conclusion – – – – – – – – -59
5.3 Recommendations – – – – – – – -59
5.4 Contribution to Knowledge – – – – – – -60
References – – – – – – – – – -61
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
Nigeria is a country blessed with abundant raw materials for ceramic production. Despite the availability of these raw materials, and the attempts being made to utilize these local raw materials, there is still much to be done especially in the area of low-temperature glazes. The trend of research into ceramic raw materials today is assuming a dynamic one. This has never been so in the past. It is believed that if this trend continues,it may soon be heading for an industrial ceramic revolution considering the abundant natural ceramic resources available all over the country and Benue State in particular. It is noted by Aluwong (1988) that, the most important issues in ceramics today are the replacement of expensive imported materials for glaze formulation by ideal raw materials and how to improve their qualities. The complaint of most practicing ceramists is that there is no equipment for raw processing. Countries noted for high-quality products of ceramics today however, started from the scratch and developed with time.
It is a challenge for the Nigerian ceramists to brace up and tackle the problem of ceramic development in the country in order to put the country on the world map of notable ceramic producers. According to Ahuwan (2003), the first move to modern pottery in Nigeria was in1902 by D. Roberts, though this was not successful until 1952 when Michael Cardew arrived. Differentceramic industries have folded up and part of the problem is attributed to low or lack of technical knowledge production of local glazes to sustain ceramic production.
In addition Chigbo (2009) observed that the ceramic industry covers up to 7,000 products and processes, and Nigeria has enough raw materials in this field to support a vigorous ceramic industry and to make a great difference in the productivity of those industries that need the ceramic products. The ceramic industry in modern times is a very large one that holds potentials for the growth and development of the nation‟s economy, but the issue of glaze is another problem confronting ceramic industries, because a great deal of energy is needed for firing the products in the kilns. There are various ways of trying to further reduce the consumption of energy within the ceramic industry. One possible way is by modifying the ingredients and recipe that can be achieved by using specified additives that cause the clay or glaze to sinter effectively at a lower temperature. Additives that lower the sintering temperature are natural or compounds containing chemical elements that already exhibit a flow-type or sintering type of behaviour at a lower temperature as noted by Hans and Hans (2011).
Earthenware glazes are based on low melting materials. Most of such materials for lowtemperature glazes earthenware can be obtained from commonly available indigenous sources. These include clays, wood ash, rice husk ash, and limestone. Earthenware glazes are fired in the range of 900°C-1100°C, as stated byNorsker and Danisch(1993).Materials used Boron is a naturally occurring element. In nature, it is found combined with oxygen and other natural elements forming several different compounds called borates. Borates are widely distributed in nature and found in the oceans, sedimentary rocks, and coal shale and some other soils.
Nigeria, as a nation, is in need of research efforts that will explore and identify locally available raw materials for industrialization. Importantly, the industrial development of a nation could likely be realized with effective and efficient utilization of the available natural resources. According to Ahuwan (1999), there is a constant search for new and relevant sources of materials so as to enhance the supply of materials to reduce the cost of production and improve the quality of products. Thus, the need to take up research work on the abundant locally available raw materials for low-temperature glaze production that will lead to low cost of production is paramount.
It is a fact that the past decades of harsh global economicmeltdown, did not help the ceramic industries in Nigeria. Most ceramic production units went underground. They were either totally abandoned or they were being run skeletally at high production cost. Even government ceramic establishments were not spared. Now that the national economy is in recession, it will not be easy for ceramic industries to embark on any serious developmental activities.It was for the reason that, the study was embarked upon for possible contribution to national development in an immeasurable way for ceramics to be in the mainstream of potential industries for national development in Nigeria. The basic rudiments of ceramics development which are raw material research, identification, characterization, exploitation, and formulation of low-temperature glazes from the local sources of ceramics raw materials are essential.
The development of low-temperature glazes from Dogo Red Clay in Buruku, Locust Bean wood fromVandeikya, and Groundnut Shells from Kwandewill be beneficial to the development of many potters, studio and ceramic industries. In view of the industrial benefit derivable from the development of ceramic raw materials in the country, the researcher explored locally sourced raw materials from Benue state in the North-Central Zone of Nigeria which has been found to be endowed with ceramic raw materials such as ball clay, silica and other related minerals in abundance. Therefore, this research focused on exploring suitable ceramic raw materials in Benue state for the production of ceramic glazes.
1.1 Statement of the Problem
The development of glaze in the country is a challenging issue to the ceramic industry and has resulted in the dependence on imported glazes which is not easy for the industries and theceramists. Such glazes are high temperature in nature which consumes more power or fuel. It has become necessary therefore, to explore the possibility of developing lowtemperature glazes using locally sourced raw materials which will reduce the enormous money paid forlight or fuel before wares are fired.
1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of the study is to formulate low-temperature glazes using selected local raw materials from Benue State;
While the objectives of the study are to:
- identify and source forceramic glaze raw materials in Benue State forformulation of the low-temperature glazes; ii. carry out chemical analysis of the selected raw materials, iii. formulate low-temperature glazes using the locally sourced materials for ceramic production, and iv. test and evaluate the effect of the formulated glaze on ceramics wares.
1.3 Research Questions
The following research questions were generated from the objectives:
- What are probable raw materials identified in Benue State for the formulation of lowtemperature glazes? ii. What are the chemical compositions of the materials suitable for the low-temperature
glazes?
- How can glazes be formulated for ceramics production usingthe sourced raw materials?
- How effective is the formulated glaze on ceramic warescomparison with imported glazes?
1.4 Justification of the Study
Available literature from the Raw Material Research and Development Council (2010) shows that Nigeria as a country has a significant reserve of inorganic and non-metallic raw materials. These raw materials buried in the ground can only become wealth when mined, processed and put to industrial use. It is observed that the processing aspect of ceramic raw materials has been a major challenge faced by ceramists and ceramic industries in Nigeria. Alkali (2003) is of the opinion that, when local raw materials are developed, they can spur industrial development and self-reliance, thus maximizing the use of local materials, instead of depending on imported ones with their attendant adverse effects on the economy. Glazes are usually imported for glazing ceramic wares as surface finish. Many people associate fragile, lowfired pottery as earthenware, and mistakenly believe that it cannot be a durable body for tableware. This study, therefore is justified, to developed glazes from selected local materials that will assist the ceramists, studio potters and local industries in Nigeria
1.5 Significance of the Study
The absence of locally processed raw materials for finishing ceramic wares is a major issue that needs attention. This has affected the development of indigenous ceramics in Nigeria. This hasalso affected the country by acquiring high duties on the importation of foreign glazes. The study istherefore of significance by providing indigenous glazes relevant to the aesthetic and economic growth in ceramic production. This alsoencourages creation of room for internal development and self-sufficiency, which depends to a large extent on the mobilization of human and natural resources.
1.6 Scope of the Study
The scope of this study is concerned with the use of selected raw materials that were locally sourced from Benue State.
1.7 Delimitation to the Study
The study was delimited to the use of selected raw materials namelyDogo Red Clay, Locust BeansAsh, and Groundnut Shells Ash to formulate earthenware glazes for ceramic production. These materials were sourced from three Local Government Areas of Benue State namely:Buruku, Vandeikya, and Kwande.
DEVELOPMENT OF LOW-TEMPERATURE GLAZES FROM SELECTED RAW MATERIALS IN BENUE STATE, NIGERIA
