INFLUENCE ON GENDER DIFFERENCES SELF ESTEEM AND CLOSENESS OF RELATIONSHIP IN SELF DISCLOSURE
ABSTRACT
The popularity of social network sites has influenced communication behaviour in a variety of contexts. This development has brought with it challenges with online privacy, self-disclosure and the overall well- being of the social media users. This study examines the interaction between privacy concerns and social media users‟ online behaviour. The study investigates measures taken by social media users on self-disclosure decisions, especially with respect to interactions on Facebook and Instagram.
This study, situated within the ambit of Communication Privacy Management and Social Penetration Theory, adopted Survey and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) methods. The simple random technique was employed to select the study population from among the students of University of Ibadan and the Polytechnic Ibadan. From this population, Purposive and Convenience sampling techniques were used to select a sample of 330 respondents – 165 respondents respectively from each institution. Two FGD sessions, one in each institution, were conducted using the quota sampling technique to select eight discussants. Data was collected using the questionnaire and FGD guides as instruments. The data generated from the survey were analysed using frequency counts, simple percentages. Data from the FGD were subjected to descriptive analyses.
Findings from this study show that Facebook and Instagram users are aware of the privacy risks attached to their online interactions. However, the privacy paradox comes to the fore because, in spite of the identified privacy concerns, findings reveal that individuals still disclose personal information on the social media platforms. This apparent disregard for online privacy by many of the respondents is attributable to some gratifications the respondents claim they derive from these virtual interactions. While responding to the enquiry about what information may be disclosed online, 244 respondents (78.2%), reported that information that pertains to one‟s income, financial status and bank transactions should not for any reason be posted on Facebook and Instagram. Moreover, 238 (76.3%) respondents agreed that facts relating to one‟s family affairs should not be posted on Facebook and Instagram. In addition, 175 (56.1%) respondents admitted that quest for relationship management is one of the factors that motivate them to selfdisclose on Facebook and Instagram. A total of 188 (60.3%) respondents pointed out that the need for self-expression also plays a vital role in the decision to self-disclose. Notably, 207 (67.3%) respondents revealed that they disclose their personal information on social media so that they can get peoples‟ opinion on issues. Furthermore, 196 (62.8%) of the respondents claimed that they ensure their online privacy by removing themselves from a chat group or page that they do not want to belong to.
Based on these findings, this study recommends that social media users should be orientated on the proper use of social media as it is obvious that many of them lack the requisite online literacy knowledge. Also, due to dangers like hacking and cyber-bullying that the breach of online privacy has caused, National Communication Commission (NCC) should come up with laws that would regulate social media use.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Communication has become easier with the advent of social media, and unarguably, it has become one of the most popular medium of communication in the world of today. Its pervasiveness around the world has made it important for people to be a member of at least one social network site. Social media has provided opportunities for people to engage in quick online interactions in situations where face-to-face interaction is not possible, especially due to distance and location. The advent of social network sites such as Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, Badoo, BBM, Whatsapp, LinkedIn, and YouTube has made it possible for information to be easily passed around the globe and to network with people without necessarily meeting them in person.
According to Baruah (2012), the term social media refers to the use of web-based and mobile technologies to turn communication into an interactive dialogue. He adds that social media is media for social interaction as a superset beyond social communication. Enabled by ubiquitously accessible and scalable communication techniques, social media has substantially changed the way organizations, communities, and individuals communicate. This means that social media, with the help of technology, has redefined social communication by enabling easy interaction among people in different facets of life.
In addition, Chennamaneni and Taneja (2015) state that social media provides an online environment for individuals to find new friends and (re)connect with old friends, family and relatives. They add that social media do not only allow people to know more about others, but also provide an opportunity to tell about themselves and socialize with others. The use of social media has cut across various fields of study and its importance in those fields can never be relegated.
From the angle of Public Relations, Graham and Avery (2013), citing Bertot, Jaeger, Munson and Glaisyer, note that social media presence is a trademark of a vibrant and transparent communications strategy, and, to that end, social media offer particular utility to local government public relations. They add that, social media tools can improve interactivity between a government and the public, and they reach populations that do not consume traditional media as frequently as others. The above point confirms that the use of social media has cut across every facets of life. Through the way social media operate, it should be noted that the usage of social network sites (SNS) revolves round constant sharing of information. This indicates that for social media to be enjoyed and appreciated, people must be willing to share their information and also receive from others. This view is confirmed by Baruah (2012) that, one of the most important advantages of social media is the online sharing of knowledge and information among the different groups of people.
Therefore, as people disclose and share information on social media, their privacy is being affected. In view of this, Yat (2012) notes that the privacy problem about disclosure of personal information on social network becomes the hottest issue and arouses much public concern and discussion. He adds that along with the increasing social network user base, this problem cannot be ignored because social network contains plenty of personal information which may bring about commercial interest and illegal usage of the information.
Also in the study of “Teens, Social Media and Privacy” by Madden et al. (2013), it is revealed that youths are sharing more personal information on their profiles than in the past. They choose private settings for Facebook, but share with large networks of friends. The findings of the study also show that most teen social media users are not very concerned about third-party access to their data. This means that social network users are aware of the privacy risks that are attached to the disclosure of their private information online, but they fail to take action towards protecting it.
This also substantiates the view of Elmi, Lahad and Ahmed (2012) that a large percentage of students are aware of possible effects of publishing identifiable information on the internet, yet, they do not cease from doing so. Could this be happening because social media is effective only when information is shared online among the users of a particular social network? It is apparent that the interactive nature of social media is what distinguishes it from other types of communication because social media is participatory. This view about the participatory nature of social media is also expressed by Cann (2011:10) that
As long as your engagement with social media is limited to consuming what other people post it is not that different from any other web content. Once you begin to produce your own content, you will start to participate in conversations on issues that interest you. This is why social media are (sic) different from the many other forms of communication that have come before.
The above excerpt shows that social media is a platform whereby participants are not meant to be passive. They have to be actively involved in the online conversation and be a producer of content, not just a consumer of content. Therefore, one could submit that the interactive nature of social media has made the users of most of the social networks to disclose some of their private information when interacting with other users. Because of this phenomenon, the issue of privacy management and self-disclosure in the use of social network has become an area of interest in social media research.
Social networks users have different privacy concerns, privacy beliefs and privacy perceptions.
According to Paine, et al. (2007:1) “the increased use of the Internet, together with rapid advances in technology, has changed the way in which information about users is gathered, stored and exchanged. Accordingly, concerns about the privacy of Internet users have grown in importance”. This trend about disclosure on social networks has therefore given rise to the issue of privacy concerns and self-disclosure in the use of social network sites. In this regard, Waters and Ackerman (2011) state that privacy is impacted when on the internet, yet this does not keep individuals from frequently using it. This means that users of social media value their privacy in different ways, and this is the reason why despite the privacy risk attached to the use of social media, people still disclose their private information in their online engagement with others. According to Kokolakis (2015), this dichotomy of privacy attitude and actual online behaviour is called „privacy paradox‟.
From another perspective, Tsai, Egelman, Cranor and Acquisti (2007:4) establish that
The reason people reveal their private information could range from incomplete information about privacy threats and defences, to bounded ability to deal with their complex trade-offs; from low (and decreasing) privacy sensitivities, to behavioural phenomena, such as immediate gratification.
Therefore, based on the fact that people can make decisions to reveal their private information due to different individual reasons, Waters and Ackerman (2011) note that disclosure is a fluid term that often changes among researchers and in their own submission; disclosure means the telling of the previously unknown, so that it becomes a shared knowledge. The definition shows that the recipient of disclosed information has a fundamental role to play in the process. This is because, before a disclosure is made, some relationships should have existed between the two parties that are involved in the interaction. Substantiating this, Waters and Ackerman (2011) emphasise that, the type of relationships that exist between those who are disclosing is significant.
Therefore, it could be said that online self-disclosure is mostly based on relationships; whether a relationship that has been existing before, or intended relationships. In addition, Lee, Im and Taylor (2008) explain that self-disclosure depends on two things: Norms or reciprocity and perception on the information. As regards the norms of reciprocity, Lee et al (2008:3) state that the norm of reciprocity refers to the tendency for recipients to match the level of intimacy in the disclosure they return with the level of intimacy in the disclosure they receive. The explanation clarifies that sometimes, people tend to reciprocate disclosure to another person. That is, because someone has willingly disclosed some information to one in the past, one may be willing to disclose to the person when needs arise.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The widespread adoption of social network sites by people has influenced communication behaviour in a variety of contexts and this has made the use of social media to be accompanied by how social media users manage their privacy and how they disclose their private information. Researchers (Brittain, 2013; Bazarova and Choi, 2014, Sang, 2014; Chenamameni and Taneja, 2015; Wieslander and Saliaropoulou, 2016) have looked into the issue of privacy management and self-disclosure in the use of social media by using different approaches. Their studies focus on the management of privacy on social media, and they also examine the area of disclosure on social media.
Sang (2014) investigates the criteria of students‟ and teachers‟ communication privacy management on Facebook and their effect on teacher-student relationship while Brittain (2013) investigates the issue of privacy and self-disclosure in public perspective. Brittain (2013) studies a church in relation to communication privacy management and public confession and the findings showed that rather than being motivated by a selfish or therapeutic desire, participants asserted that they wanted to encourage others through their disclosure.
Furthermore, Bazarova and Choi (2014) used functional approach in connecting self-disclosure goals to message characteristics, which requires looking into actual communication content and goals associated with it. Their findings reveal that self-disclosures in Facebook status updates, wall posts, and private messaging are motivated by different reward values. Based on their findings, they suggest that one way to consider differences between self-disclosure goals is by mapping them onto intrapersonal–interpersonal orientation, which represents the extent of orientation toward the self or the other and the level of interdependency between the discloser and receiver.
The recent study of Wieslander and Saliaropoulou (2016) focus on the individual privacy management behaviour on the social networking sites by examining the actual use of privacy setting. In their submission, Wieslander and Saliaropoulou reveal that Social Network Sites (SNS) have been characterized as a new communication landscape, with SNS users to be benefitting in more ways when using them, such as with information and enjoyment. They however note that this online information sharing has led to some concerns as regard individuals‟ information privacy when employing the SNS. Their empirical findings reveal that the type of SNS and the IT skills of users can affect their behavioural intention to use the privacy settings on them. Also, users‟ behavioural intention to use privacy settings, the privacy calculus when disclosing information on SNS and the use of other privacy management strategies together with the control elements (type of SNS, IT skills and age), are factors that can affect the actual use of privacy settings on the SNS.
In another study, Milham and Atkin (2016) investigate the factors that motivate people in disclosing their private information and they explore some factors like online privacy concerns, privacy beliefs, and trust as key factors that determine individuals‟ disclosure on social media. As earlier implied, all the aforementioned studies have explored privacy and self-disclosure from different perspective, but the basis of Communication Privacy Management theory, which is the understanding of the way social media users make decision about revealing and concealing private information needs to be more explored.
Furthermore, some questions still need to be answered; such as, is there any connection between privacy awareness and self-disclosure decision on social media? Do social media users seek gratifications of online self-disclosure more than online privacy management? This study, therefore, seeks to address this by investigating how privacy concerns influence the privacy management measures that social media users adopt in their online engagement with others on social media. This study will also examine the motivational factors that influence the selfdisclosure decisions of social media users
In addition, in the scholars‟ work reviewed, there appears to be lack of systematic and empirical investigation in Africa and Nigeria in particular, on the level of privacy concerns, privacy management strategies and the motivating factors for self-disclosure on social network sites by students of higher institutions of learning. These are the obvious gaps that this study attempts to fill. This study therefore aims to contribute to the body of knowledge by doing research in this area in order to help other researchers in Africa and Nigeria to understand more about this phenomenon.
1.3 Research Questions
Taking into consideration all that have been explained, the following research questions will therefore be the focus of this study:
- To what extent are social media users aware of the privacy risks in their online interactions?
- What measures do social media users adopt to ensure some level of online privacy?
- What motivational factors are responsible for self-disclosure by the social media users while on the social media platform?
- What uses and gratification do students derive from disclosing their private information to other social media users in their online interaction?
1.4 Purpose of the Study
Drawing from the idea of Yat (2012), the frequent users‟ involvement obviously is the building block of social network development and also its growing commercial value. People continue to share and disclose large amount of personal information on social networks even though there are threats and risks. Based on this premise, the purpose of this research will be developed. Firstly, this study will investigate the extent to which social media users are aware of the privacy risk at play in their online interactions.
Secondly, due to the fact that social media have given people an opportunity to have access to other peoples‟ private life especially in the online platform, this study will investigate different measures that social media users have adopted in order to manage their online privacy, particularly on Facebook and Instagram.
Furthermore, this study will proffer answers to the motivational factors that are responsible for self-disclosure on the social media platforms. The question is, even with the dilemma of privacy concerns that social media users have found themselves in, what are those things that prompt people to disclose their private information on social media platforms?
Lastly, findings have shown that social network users have different goals they want to achieve in their online interaction with others (Bazarova and Choi 2014; Lee et al. 2008). Thus, this study will look at the uses and gratification that students derive from disclosing their private information to other social media users in their online interactions.
1.5 Scope of the Study
This research work covered two major ends that are central to the core questions. Firstly, the study focused on Students of higher institutions of learning in Ibadan metropolis. The choice of this scope was informed by the fact that people aged between 16 and above are digital citizens, a factor which makes them suitable respondents for the study (Herring and Kapidzic, 2015). Since it may be possible to reach every member of the population, a representative sample of the population was covered. Secondly, this research work covered two (2) social network sites which are Facebook and Instagram. The rationale for the choice of these two social network sites is because their usage involves sharing of personal information such as pictures, videos, occupation, relationship status, location, date of birth and so on. In addition, based on the observation of this researcher, Facebook and Instagram are part of the most used social network sites, especially among the students of higher institutions of learning in Nigeria.
1.6 Significance of the Study
This study will be useful for all the users of social networks. The study will enable people to know the importance of privacy management on social media and social networking sites. In addition, findings from this study will help social media users to know the risks in online selfdisclosure. In the same vein, this study will make social network users to cultivate the attitude of utilizing the privacy settings that are assigned to the social network of their choice. Also, the findings of this study could be useful for academia and the National Communication Commission (NCC). Concerning the academia, the present research would contribute and extend the literature on online privacy management, privacy concern, privacy paradox, and selfdisclosure. In addition, findings from this study would enable the National Communication Commission (NCC) to create a law that will guide the online activities of social media users in Nigeria.
1.7 Limitations of the study
This study is limited in a number of ways. One of the areas of limitation is sampling. The sample size was drawn only from the University of Ibadan and Polytechnic Ibadan regular students. Opinions of students from monotechnics, private universities and science based institution were not sampled. Apparently, some common organizational, professional, environmental and cultural factors may affect how and for what purpose the sample uses Facebook and Instagram. Therefore, the findings of the study cannot be safely generalized over all Facebook and Instagram users in Nigeria. Another area of limitation is that the IT skill and culture of the respondents were not considered. This is a serious limitation because these two factors may have influence on online behaviour of Facebook and Instagram users. Furthermore, the researcher experienced some form of apathy from the Polytechnic Ibadan students. Some of the students were reluctant to participate in the study as they claimed that university students always have an edge over them in the outside world. Due to this attitude from the Polytechnic Ibadan Students, the researcher was unable to conduct a Focus Group Discussion in the school.
