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PRODUCTION, CHARACTERIZATION AND SI ENGINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF PALM BUNCH BIOETHANOL
ABSTRACT
This study investigates bioethanol production from waste palm bunch. This project falls under the focus category of waste to energy as it addressed issues relating to conversion of waste which poses a disposal burden to energy. Physical properties of the feedstock which was collected from Siat Nigeria Limited Ubima, Rivers State were determined to consist of 57.44 % cellulose, 16.89 % hemicelluloses, 15.87 % lignin and 5.57 % ash. The raw material was prepared by physical pretreatment, chemical hydrolysis, fermentation and distillation to obtain bioethanol fuel. The presence of bioethanol and its optimum preparation condition were established from a preliminary experiment in the laboratory. The physical pretreatment which is the most critical step being labour intensive reduced the feedstock size to 850 microns. Hydrolysis carried out with H2SO4 on 200 g of the pretreated raw material gave optimum yield of 27 g/L xylose and 49 g/L glucose with 1.2 % acid load for 30 minutes at 160 0C, giving a total sugar yield of 76 g/L. Fermentation of the optimum hydrolyzate with S. cereviasea for 72 hours at room temperature gave optimum bioethanol yield of 32 g/L. A charcoal fueled distiller of 20 L feed/h loading capacity, 8.95 kW reactor power rating was fabricated based on the preliminary data. The distiller was used to distill bioethanol from the optimum fermentate, at 75 % combustion efficiency. 817 ml of bioethanol was obtained in 115 minutes at actual combustion efficiency of 55 % and power rating of 12.2 kW. The distiller has high flexibility of handling various boiler feed using different biomass solid fuel in the reactor. The produced bioethanol elemental analysis conforms to ASTM D4806. Fuel blends of the bioethanol with pure petrol were characterized based on ASTM D4814. At 15 0C, density of pure petrol increased from 744.73 kg/m3 to 782.5 kg/m3 with increase in bioethanol while E100 has 791.13 kg/m3. Octane number of pure petrol increased with increase in bioethanol in the blends. Flash point of all the blends is below 15 0C making them susceptible to ignition and has the chance of flammability hazard. The vapour pressure of pure petrol increased with 10 % bioethanol but decreased with increase in bioethanol from 20 %. Bioethanol content above 10 % increased viscosity of pure petrol. Calorific value of pure petrol was decreased with increase in bioethanol percentage in the blends. The suitability of the fuel blends as SI engine fuels were studied at full, 3/4 and 1/2 engine loads; and at 2500 rpm, 3000 rpm and 3500 rpm engine speeds. The performance evaluation was carried out in a single cylinder, four strokes, air cooled Petrol Engine. The performance characteristics observed showed that, blending pure petrol with the bioethanol increases the brake power, brake specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiencies. The engine performance results recommend blending pure petrol with 10 – 30 % of the bioethanol. Thus, the need of bioethanol for energy sector could be met by using Nigerian waste palm bunch as raw material.
Keywords: Waste Palm bunch, Bioethanol, Distiller and Engine performance.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration iii
Certification iv
Dedication v
Acknowledgement vi
Abstract vii
Table of Content viii
List of Tables xiii
List of Figures xiv
List of Drawings xvii
Nomenclature xviii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 4
1.3 Objectives of the study 4
1.4 Significance of study 5
1.5 Scope of study 5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Biofuel 6
2.2 Ethanol 6
2.3 Ethanol Background 8
2.3.1 Synthetic Ethanol 14
2.4 Lignocellulose 14
2.4.1 Waste Palm Bunch Lignocellulose 16
2.5 Propagation and Potential Utilization of Oil Palm Biomass 22
2.6 Lignocellulosic Bioethanol Production 24
2.6.1 Drying 25
2.6.2 Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 26
2.6.3 Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass 30
2.6.4 Fermentation of Lignocellulosic Biomass 35
2.6.5 Separation / Dehydration of Bioethanol Fuel 38
2.7 Distillation Thermodynamics of Biothanol -Water Mixture 45
2.8 Distillation Plant Analysis 47
2.8.1 Fouling 51
2.8.2 Cleaning and Maintenance of Distillation Devices 52
2.8.3 Environmental Effect 53
2.9 Heat Energy Source Considerations 55
2.9.1 Charcoal as a Heat Source 56
2.9.2 Charcoal Combustion 59
2.10 Distillation Considerations 62
2.10.1 Fluid Properties 62
2.10.2 Distillation Energetic 62
2.10.3 Estimation of Fuel Requirements 65
2.10.4 Amount of Air Needed for Complete Combustion 65
2.10.5 Time to Consume Fuel 66
2.10.6 Combustion Zone Rate (CZR) 66
2.10.7 Reactor Diameter 67
2.10.8 Furnace Height 67
2.10.9 Furnace Volume / Cross Sectional Area 68
2.10.10 Superficial Air Velocity 68
2.10.11 Resistance of Fuel Material to Airflow 69
2.10.12 Exhaust Pipe 69
2.10.13 Blower / Fan 71
2.10.14 Power Required for Furnace Fan 72
2.10.15 Coolant Quantity 74
2.10.16 Fluids Flow Properties 74
2.10.17 Heat Transfer in Condenser 75
2.10.18 Log Mean Temperature Difference 77
2.10.19 Condensation Tube Properties 78
2.10.20 Pressure Drop 78
2.10.21 Pump Capacity 80
2.11 Machine Effectiveness 81
2.12 Product Yield 83
2.13 Factors Limiting Bioethanol Yield 86
2.14 By-products in Bioethanol from Lignocellulosic Materials 87
2.15 Related Studies on Bioethanol Production Techniques from Waste Palm Bunch 87
2.16 Potential Risk of Energy Palm Cultivation 90
2.17 Palm Bunch Base Bioethanol Fuel Production Opportunities 91
2.18 Nigeria Effort in Biofuel Realization in the Country 94
2.19 Internal Combustion Engine 98
2.19.1 IC Engine in Automobile 98
2.19.2 IC Engine History 99
2.19.3 Spark Ignition Engine 100
2.19.4 Compression Ignition Engine 101
2.19.5 Losses in IC Engine 102
2.19.6 Internal Combustion Engine Fuel Requirements 103
2.20 Engine Fuel Properties 105
2.20.1 Viscosity and Material Compatibility 105
2.20.2 Volatility and Vapor Pressure 106
2.20.3 Cetane Rating / Flash point 107
2.20.4 Octane Number 108
2.20.5 Fuel Calorific Value and Freezing Point 111
2.20.6 Specific Gravity, Surface Tension and Fuel Stability 112
2.20.7 Distillation Profile and Driveability 113
2.20.8 Fuel Purity, Ash, Sulfur and Benzene Content 114
2.21 Engine Performance Characteristics 115
2.22 Bioethanol as Engine Fuel 122
2.23 Related Studies on Bioethanol Fuel in ICE 128
2.24 Summary 134 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 135
3.1 Material 135
3.1.1 Sample Collection 135
3.1.2 Required Materials Provision 135
3.2 Sample Preparation 136
3.2.1 Drying 136
3.2.2 Physical Pretreatment 137
3.2.3 Feedstock Characterization 139
3.2.4 Dilute Acid Hydrolysis 140
3.2.5 Glucose Determination 143
3.2.6 Xylose Determination 143
3.2.7 Fermentation 145
3.2.8 Bioethanol Determination 146
3.2.9 Preliminary Dehydration 147
3.2.10 Distiller Fabrication 149
3.2.11 Distiller Calculations 150
3.2.12 Material Selection for Dryer Components 157
3.2.13 Insulation 160
3.2.14 Principle of Operation 160
3.2.15 Experimentation 162
3.2.16 Characterisation of Sample Fuels 164
3.2.17 Engine Performance Test 172
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 176
4.1 Results 176
4.1.1 Raw Material Characterization Result 176
4.1.2 Glucose, Xylose and Bioethanol Standard Analysis Results 176
4.1.3 Preliminary Hydrolysis Result 178
4.1.4 Preliminary Fermentation Result 186
4.1.5 Distiller Operation Result 186
4.1.6 Distiller Performance Data 188
4.1.7 Fuels Characterization Result 188
4.1.8 Engine Performance Result 192
4.2 Discussion 200
4.2.1 Raw Material Pretreatment 200
4.2.2 Raw Material Characterization 200
4.2.3 Glucose, Xylose and Bioethanol Standard Analysis 201
4.2.4 Preliminary Hydrolysis 201
4.2.5 Preliminary Fermentation Result 206
4.2.6 Distiller Operation Result 208
4.2.7 Distiller Performance 209
4.2.8 Fuels Characterization Result 211
4.2.9 Engine Performance 216
4.2.10 Trouble Shooting Guide 229
4.2.11 Economics Analysis of the WPB Bioethanol Fuel 231
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 240
5.1 Conclusions 240
5.2 Recommendation 241
5.3 Contribution to Knowledge 241
REFERENCE 242
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
The standard of living of the people of any country is considered to be directly proportional to the energy consumption of its people (Peter & Gbenga, 2007). The disparity one feels from country to country arises from the extent of accessible energy for the citizens of each country. Fossil fuels particularly oil, coal and natural gas have been providing over 90 % of world‘s energy demands mainly because they are readily available and convenient to use (Ashish & Mohapatra 2013). The geographical non equi-distribution of this source and also the ability to acquire, control the production and supply of this energy source have given rise to many issues and also disparity in the standard of living. Upon this these resources are not renewable and will eventually deplete (Ganesan & Elango 2013), the readily accessible reserves may well get exhausted by 2030 (Helma 2013, Tan et. al., 2014). Fossil fuels have high energy intensity and have heralded technological progress but its lead to air pollution, acid rain, increasing levels of tropospheric ozone, depletion of stratospheric ozone, greenhouse effect and thereby global warming which are serious environmental threats and harmful to human health (Scott 2013, Siddegowda & Venkatesh 2013). Six greenhouse gases have been identified under the Kyoto Protocol to include Carbon dioxide (C02), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N20), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), as listed in Annex A of the Koyoto Protocol. The current trajectory of fossil fuel use and its related emission of these greenhouse gases are unsustainable (IEA 2008); the environment is in threat by exploration of oil. Presently, in Nigeria there are over 11 oil companies operating 1,481 wells from 159 oil fields in the Niger Delta producing 2.7 million barrels of crude oil each day and flaring about 17 billion cubic meters of associated gas, spewing 2,700 tons of particulates, 160 tons of sulphur oxides, 5,400 tons of carbon monoxide, 12 and 3.5 million tons of methane and carbon dioxide, respectively, in the process (Peter & Gbenga, 2007). Dheeraj et. al., (2014) reported that the contribution to global anthropogenic emissions from transportation amounts to 21% of CO2, 37% of Nox, 19% of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 18% of CO and 14% of black carbon, the main source of carbonyls and
VOCs result directly from incomplete combustion of fossil fuel such as vehicle exhausts and biomass burning. The continual and increasing energy demand of the world, advances in technology,
uneven distribution around the globe and non renewability of fossil fuels in addition to the rising costs of its resulting pollution led to desire for an alternative or a fuel additive which led to the increasing demand for biofuels (Ferreira et al., 2010). Thus, there is need for fuels from renewable energy sources, clean air and improving engine efficiency which can be achieved with fuels of high compression tolerance, higher latent heat of vaporization, higher anti-knocking characteristics and better combustion (Ganesan & Elango, 2013, Helma, 2013, Dheeraj et. al., 2014). The renewable feedstock is to be abundant in nature and competes not with human food supply hence; utilizing renewable agricultural wastes is of great benefit as the disposal problems of such wastes are then eliminated while energy and environmental advantages are gained against their direct combustion which causes air pollution. According to the experts programs of the World Committee of Energy Council, it is predicted that in 2070 the contribution of renewable energy to the total world energy balance will be about 60 % (Wladyslaw et al., 2008, UNDP 2007). World ethanol production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion liters and reached 84.6 billion liters in 2011, with United States as the top producer (52.6 billion liters), accounting for 62.2 % of global production, followed by Brazil with (21.1 billion liters) (Hossein et. al., 2006, Steenblik 2007). Owing to its widespread availability, biorenewable fuel technology will potentially result to more employment than fossil-fuel-based technology (Demirbas 2006, Shyam et. al., 2012, Karl et. al., 2005). Due to high-energy values, ethanol is the most promising future biofuel (Veronica et al., 2010, Ferreira et al., 2010). Generally, modernizing biomass energy production however faces a variety of challenges which include technical problems, resource availability, environmental impacts, and economic feasibility (Antonia et al., 2000). In spite this limitation, the market of ethanol for fuel is increasing. Its energy content is about 70 % of that of petrol (Pradeep and Samir, 2011). Its reduction in greenhouse gas emission is an added value. With advancement in science and technology, the benefits derivable from bioethanol have continued to multiply; medically, ethanol is sleep inducing; Pharmaceutical; it is use in preparing cough syrups and antiseptics. Raw materials; it is use as a solvent in the manufacture of varnishes and perfumes; as explosives, detergents, germicide, anti-freeze in automobile radiators, versatile intermediate for organic chemicals e.g. acetaldehyde, ethylene, glycol, dyes, cleaning solution etc. It is used in preparing alcoholic beverages also, as a preservative for biological specimens. Bioethanol is unique amongst today‘s sustainable fuel options; in that it can be used in internal combustion engines and also as a perfect fuel source for hydrogen fuel cell.
The enormous advantages of ethanol and other biofuels have geared researches towards the production of biofuel from various renewable organic raw materials like corn, cassava, palm oil etc. However, in an attempt to save the food chain and to reduce the inflation of food prices caused by biofuels from agricultural feed, researches are being directed to the production of biofuels from agricultural waste e.g. lignocelluloses like sugar cane baggase, palm bunch etc., which constitutes approximately 50 % of land produced biomass (Ganesan
& Elango 2013, Thallada et al., 2011). It is estimated that ethanol produced from the world‘s agriwaste and forest residues could replace 32 % of global petrol consumption (Leland, 2005). Thus, implementation of efficient bioethanol production from lignocellulose can be a breakthrough in the fuel market or world‘s energy portfolio (Piotr et al., 2007; Leland, 2005). Currently, there are not many biomasses to ethanol plants in commercial operation in Nigeria, thus, the real or perceived risks will only be addressed when several plants are in successful operation. As the technology matures, however, producing ethanol from lignocellulosic wastes will become more competitive with other means. Palm bunch is a lignocellulosic agricultural waste that remains after the removal of palm fruits from the bunch. In Nigeria, the quantities of palm bunch available in palm oil producing states are high; thus converting these to bioethanol fuel would have a significant positive economic impact on the nation. Also the use of local feed stocks from Nigeria would enhance both the grower’s and the nation‘s economy by partially augmenting fuel exports. The utilization of lignocellulosic biomass for bioethanol production necessitates the large-scale production techniques to be cost effective and environmentally sustainable. Although extensive studies have been carried out using food crops as feedstock to meet the future challenges of bioenergy generation, attention is still required in the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to bioethanol. The yield and fuel properties of bioethanol from Nigerian palm bunch, and factors that affects them is yet to be extensively studied. Also the produced bioethanol fuel adaptability to the existing engines still needs to be guaranteed. This study will produce bioethanol from waste palm bunch and investigate its fuel properties and adaptability in existing spark ignition engines. It proposes achieving commercial lignocellulosic biofuel production in Nigeria, to gradually reduce the nation‘s dependence on petrol, and precipitate sustainable domestic jobs.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
There are increasing costs of fossil fuels; also its finite nature, environmental threat- pollution, and the need to increase engine life and efficiency have been a problem to the world. These problems call for alternative energy sources. The required alternative energy sources need to have some desirable characteristics such as low cost, abundance / availability, conveniently usable, clean combustion, and renewable nature, economically transportable and socially compatible. Though alternative energy sources such as solar, wind, tidal, ocean, geothermal etc. are available in plenty and environmental compatible, their harnessing are still poor due to drawbacks such as productive cost and unfeasible technological know-how. Thus, this search for alternative energy sources led to this research to produce bioethanol. Bioethanol can be considered as the only conceivable energy source that is an ideal fuel of the future because of its non-polluting, high compression resistance and renewable nature. Little work has been done towards lignocellulosic biofuel production and usage in Nigeria. Hence, working out the technical and economic feasibility of lignocellulosic biofuel by this research is of major importance. This report proposes achieving commercial lignocellulosic bioethanol production in Nigeria, to gradually reduce the nation‘s dependence on petrol, reduce environmental pollution while at the same time create a commercially viable industry that can precipitate sustainable domestic jobs.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study is to produce, characterize and evaluate the SI engine performance of bioethanol from Nigerian waste palm bunch.
The specific objectives are to:
- Fabricate a distiller for the waste palm bunch broth distillation.
- Produce bioethanol fuel from the waste palm bunch using the fabricated distiller.
- Characterize the produced bioethanol fuel using ASTM standard.
- Carry out performance evaluation of the produced bioethanol fuel on spark ignition engine.
- Significance of the Study
This study will produce bioethanol fuel from biomass waste, which could be conveniently used in spark ignition engine and produce to exportable level. The quality of the environment improves; as combustion is improved, carbon monoxide emissions will be reduced, lead and other carcinogens (cancer causing agents) are removed from petrol. The engine overall efficiency will increase due to higher latent heat of vaporisation and higher anti-knocking characteristics of the fuel. These ensure reduction of heat loss and higher air-fuel mixture compression respectively and, consequently, better thermal efficiency, potential energy efficiency and performance gain. The study will also produce a distiller for biofuel production. The project falls under the focus category of second generation energy production as it addresses issues relating to conversion of waste which poses a disposal burden to energy. Converting lignocellulosic waste organic farm produce to a high quality fuel would provide an economic opportunity for Nigeria. The target beneficiaries are transporters, car owners, organizations, homes, the nation and world at large.
- Scope of the Study
In the course of this study, the chosen waste organic raw material for the production of bioethanol fuel is Nigerian waste palm bunch. The scope is the production of bioethanol fuel from the waste palm bunch, distilled with the fabricated distiller; the product fuel will be characterized using ASTM standard after which its performance in a spark ignition engine will be evaluated without considering the engine emission. Finally, analysis of the results will be carried out.
PRODUCTION, CHARACTERIZATION AND SI ENGINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF PALM BUNCH BIOETHANOL
