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LOCUS STANDI AS AN OBSTACLE TO ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE IN NIGERIA
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ABSTRACT
Environmental Justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, colour, sex, national origin or income with respect to the development, implementation and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations and policies.
Environmental Justice emerged as a concept in the United States in the early 1980’s; its proponents generally view the environment as encompassing and seek to redress inequitable distributions of environmental burdens.
In Nigeria, foreign exchange earnings from crude oil sources account for the single most important source of Nigeria’s foreign exchange. Hence, since oil was discovered in the Niger Delta region of the country in commercial quantities in 1956, there have been increased activities in the oil sector in the areas of exploration and exploitation, refining, export and domestic distribution. While these oil activities have generated immense financial benefits for the country, they have also created serious health and environmental problems.
With the increase in the oil activities and its resultant consequences, it became clear that the common law remedies were not easily available to the victims of the pollution. This worked injustice on the victims. Further there was no comprehensive national policy and enforcement statute for the country’s environmental protection. It took the 1988 Koko toxic waste dump for the country to fashion out a national policy on the Environment with supporting statutory legislations.
However, even with the statutory legislation in place the problems of the victims were far from over. These victims hardly get any justice from the courts. This is because of the many impediments that comes with environmental litigation, the most troublesome being the doctrine of locus standi. The doctrine of locus standi is a common law doctrine that has found its way into our legal system. Locus standi is the existence of a right of an individual or group of individuals to bring an action before a court of law for adjudication.
This work seeks to examine the concept of environmental justice in Nigeria, what constitutes Environmental justice, its impediments, and to this extent, we will look at the doctrine of locus standi and its effect on Environmental justice. We will also look at other impediments to Environmental justice. We will also look at few foreign jurisdictions to find out how the concept of environmental justice has been applied. Finally, we will proffer solutions on how best to achieve environmental justice.
This work is divided into five chapters. Chapter one deals with the general introduction. Chapter two deals with the issue of locus standi in Nigeria. Chapter three deals with the challenges of Environmental justice. Chapter four deals with Environmental justice in foreign jurisdictions. Finally, chapter five deal with conclusion and recommendation.
TABLE OF STATUTES
LOCAL STATUTES
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1979
Section 6…………………………………………27
Section 6(6) (b)……………………..24,25,26,27
Section 230(1) (o)…………………………….34
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999
Section 4(1)…………………………………….64
Section 6(6) (b)……………………..24,25,26,27
Section 251(1)………………………………..33,34
Criminal Code Act of 1916
Environmental Impact Assessment Act, 1992
Section 7………………………………………..43
Section 61……………………………………..1
Federal Environmental Protection Act, 1988
Harmful Wastes (Special Criminal Provisions) Act
Land Use Act, 1978
Section 29 (3)…………………………………44
National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (Establishment) Act, 2007
Oil Pipelines Act
Section 21………………………………………44
Public Health Act of 1917
FOREIGN STATUTES
India
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
The Constitution of India
Article 21……………………………………48, 49
Article 32……………………………………..49
Article 142……………………………………48
Article 226……………………………………48
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974
Kenya
Environmental Management and Coordination Act, 1999
Section 3……………………………………..51, 52
The Civil Procedure Act
Section 3……………………………………….51
The Law Reform Act
U.K
Environmental Information Regulations, 2004
The Administration of Justice [Miscellaneous Provisions] Act, 1938
Section 7………………………………………….62
The Climate Change Act 2008
INTERNATIONAL STATUTES
Convention for the Protection of Birds Useful to Agriculture 1902
Convention for the Preservation and Protection of Fur Seals 1911
Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds 1916
Convention Relative to the Preservation of Fauna and Flora in their Natural State
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
Principle 10……………………………………52
TABLE OF CASES
Page
Abel Isaiah and 2 Ors v. Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd (2001) 6 NSCQR 542………………………………………………………………………………………………………33
Adediran v Interland Transport Ltd (1991) 9 NWLR (pt.214) 164……………………………66
Adesanya v. President of the Republic of Nigeria & Anor(1981) 2NCLR 358………………………………………………………………………………………..7, 23,24,25,26,27,62,65
A.G Kaduna State v. Hassan (1985) 2 NWLR (Pt 8) 483…………………………………………26
Amos v. Shell B.P. Nigerian Limited (1974) 4 ECSLR 486……………………………………..32
Asogwa v. Chukwu (2003) 4 NWLR (pt.811) 540…………………………………………………..32
Bangalore Medical Trust v. B.S. Muddappa (1991) 4 SCC 54…………………………………..46
Chief Gafaru Arowolo v. Chief Sunday Olowookere(2011) LPELR- SC 200/2003…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….7
C.G.G. (Nig.) Ltd. v. Amaewhile (2006) 3 NWLR (pt. 967) 284………………………………..35
C.G.G. (Nig) Ltd. v. Ogu (2005) 8 NWLR (pt.927) at 284…………………………………………33
Ejem v. Offiah (2000) 7 NWLR (pt.666) 662……………………………………………………………32
Elendu v. Ekwoaba (1995) 3 NWLR (pt. 386) 704…………………………………………………….22
F.A.T.B. v. Ezegbu (1994) 9 NWLR (pt. 149) 236……………………………………………………26
Fertilizer Corporation Kamgar Union v. Union of India, AIR 1981 SC 344…………………..46
Fleet Street Casuals case (Inland Revenue Commissioners v. National Federation of Self Employed and Small Businesses) (1981) 2 All E.R. 93; (1982) A.C 617………………………..55
George Ngbor v. CGG (Nig.) Ltd & Anor Suit No. RHC/30/93…………………………………….38
Greenpeace Ltd. v. HM Inspectorate of Pollution No.2 (1994) 4 All E.R 329; (1994) 2 CMLR 548; (1994) Env. L.R 76………………………………………………………………………………..56
Francis Coralie Mullin v. Administrator, Union Territory of Delhi (1981) 1 SCC 608……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..48
Jika v. Akuson (2006) FWLR (pt.293) 276………………………………………………………………31
John Eboigbe v. NNPC (1994) 5NWLR (pt.347) at 649……………………………………………36
L.K. Koolwal v. State of Rajasthan AIR 1988 Raj 2…………………………………………………..49
Madukolu v. Nkemdilem (1962) 1 All NLR 587………………………………………………………..32
Momoh & Anor v. Oluto (1970) All NLR 121 at 127………………………………………………….8
Mumbai Kamgar Sabha v. Abdulbhai, AIR 1976 SC 1455………………………………..46
Ndule v. Ibezim (2002) 12 M.J.S 150………………………………………………………………………..32
NNPC v. Fawehinmi (1998) 7 NWLR (pt. 559) 598 at 612……………………………………….26, 28
NNPC v. Sele (2004) 5 NWLR (pt. 866) at 383………………………………………………………….44
Omega Bank Plc. v. Govt. Ekiti State (2007) 16 NWLR (Pt. 1061) 445…………………………6
Oronto Douglas v. Shell and 5 Ors(1999) 2 NWLR (pt.591) 446………………………………….43
Owodunmi v. Registered Trustees of Celestial Church & Ors(2000) 10 NWLR (pt. 675) 315………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7, 27
R v. Paddington Valuation Office ex parte Peachey Property Corporation (1966) 1 QB 380 at 400…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………21
R v. Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, ex parte Greenpeace Ltd. (2000) 2 CMLR 94…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..57
R v. Thames Magistrate Court (1975) 5 LGR, 129……………………………………………………….21
RLEK v. State of Uttar Pradesh and Others AIR 1985 SC 652………………………………………62
Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra v. State of U.P. (1985) 2 SCC 431…………………..50
Sam Odera & Ors v. National Environmental Authority & Anor (2007) eKLR……………….52
Seismograph Services Ltd v. Esiso Akpruoyo (1974) 6 SC 308……………………………………..40
Seismograph Services (Nig.) Ltd. v. Eyuafe (1976) NSCC 434………………………………………41
Seismograph Services (Nig.) Ltd. v. Ogbeni (1976) 4 S.C. 85………………………………………..40
Seismograph Services Ltd v. Onokposa (1972) 4 SC 123……………………………………………….39
Shell Petroleum Development Company Ltd v. Councillor F.B. Farah and 7 Ors(1995) 3 NWLR (pt. 382) 148…………………………………………………………………………………………….19, 37
SPDC v. George Uzoaru & 3 Ors (1994) 9 NWLR (pt.366) at 51……………………………………36
Shell Petroleum Development of Nigeria Ltd. v. Halleluja Bukuma Fishermen Multi-purpose Co-operation Society Ltd Suit No. CA/PH/84/96………………………………………………………….32
Shell Petroleum Development Company Nigeria Limited v. Chief Otoko & Ors. (1990) 6 NWLR (pt. 159) 693…………………………………………………………………………………………….32, 42
Shell Petroleum Development Company v. Tiebo (1996) 4 NWLR (pt.445) at 71…………….37
Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar (1991) 1 SCC 598……………………………………………………..49
- Damodhar Rao v. Special Officer, Municipal Corpn., Hyderabad AIR 1987 AP 171………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….49
T.N. Godavarman Thirumulkpad v. Union of India (1997) 2 SCC 267…………………………….48
Yahaya v. The State (2002) 3 MJS 103………………………………………………………………………..31
ABBREVIATIONS
A.C Appeal Cases
AIR All India Reporter
All ER All England’s Reports
FWLR Federation Weekly Law Reports
All NLR All Nigeria Law Reports
BTS Base Tranreceiver Station
CAP Chapter
CJN Chief Justice of Nigeria
CMLR Common Market Law Reports
Eau Environmental Audits
ECSLR East Central States Law Reports
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
eKLR Electronic Kenya Law Reports
Env. L.R Environmental Law Reports
EMCA Environmental Management and Coordination Act
E.P.A Environmental Protection Agency
E.U European Union
FEPA Federal Environmental Protection Agency
J.C.A Justice of the Court of Appeal
J.S.C Justice of the Supreme Court
LGR Local Government Reports
LFN Laws of the Federation of Nigeria
L.N.G Liquefied Natural Gas
LPELR Law Pavilion Electronic Law Reports
M.J.S Monthly Judgments of the Supreme Court
NCLR Nigerian Constitutional Law Reports
NEMA National Environmental Management Authority
NESREA National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency
NGO Non Governmental Organization
NNPC Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation
NSCC Nigerian Supreme Court Cases
NSCQR Nigerian Supreme Court Quarterly Reports
NWLR Nigerian Weekly Law Reports
PIL Public Interest Litigation
Q.B Queens Bench
SEA Strategic Environmental Assessments
S.C Judgments of the Supreme Court of Nigeria
S.C.C Supreme Court Cases of India
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page………………………………………………………………………………………….. i
Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………… ii
Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………………….. iii
Certification……………………………………………………………………………………… iv
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………. v
Table of Statutes……………………………………………………………………………….. vi
Table of Cases…………………………………………………………………………………… viii
Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………………………. ix
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………. xi
Chapter One- Introduction
1.1: Definition of terms………………………………………………………………… 1
1.1.1: Environment…………………………………………………………………………. 1
1.1.2: Environmental Law……………………………………………………………….. 2
1.1.3 Environmental Protection……………………………………………………….. 4
1.1.4 Environmental Justice………………………………………………………………5
1.1.5 Locus Standi…………………………………………………………………………. 6
1.2: Development of Environmental Law………………………………………… 8
1.3: Development of Environmental Law in Nigeria…………………………. 10
1.4: Development of Environmental Justice……………………………………… 13
1.5: Development of Environmental Justice in Nigeria………………………. 16
Chapter Two-The Doctrine of Locus Standi in Nigeria
2.1: The test of Locus Standi………………………………………………………….20
2.2: The application of the doctrine of Locus Standi by the courts………22
2.3: The problems of Locus Standi…………………………………………………..28
Chapter Three-The Challenges of Environmental Justice in Nigeria
3.1: Jurisdiction……………………………………………………………………………..30
3.2: Delays in the administration of justice………………………………………..35
3.3: Expert Witness…………………………………………………………………………37
3.4: Locus Standi……………………………………………………………………………39
Chapter Four-Locus Standi and Environmental Justice in Foreign Jurisdictions
4.1: Locus Standi and Environmental Justice in India………………………..44
4.2: Locus Standi and Environmental Justice in Kenya………………………49
4.3: Locus Standi and Environmental Justice in the United Kingdom….52
Chapter Five-Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1: Recommendation…………………………………………………………………….58
5.2: Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition of Terms1.1.1 Environment
The term „environment‟ has been given different definitions. It has been defined as the
totality of physical, economic, cultural, aesthetic and social circumstances which surround
and affect the desirability and value of property and which also affect the quality of peoples‟
lives.
It has also been defined as „the components of the earth‟ and includes
a Land, water and air including all layers of the atmosphere
b. All organic and inorganic matter and living organisms and
c. The interacting natural systems that include components referred to in paragraphs
(a)and (b).
The first definition covers the broad concept of „environment‟. In that respect, they e
mbraceeverything within and around man that may have effect on or be affected by man. This moreexpansive concept of environment is synonymous with the human environment
The definition under Nigerian law covers a narrower concept of “environment”. This
conceptrestricts the meaning to the physical or natural environment, comprising God given naturalresources, natural elements and natural environment whether or not modified by man.
Thisnarrower concept of environment is therefore synonymous with the physical or naturalenvironment.
Flowing from the above definitions, environment is therefore earth in itstotality; air, water and land.
1.1.2 Environmental Law
The concept of environmental law refers to the integrated rules and principles i.e. legalnorms, the purpose of which is to achieve environmental conservation.
Environmental law isa complex and interlocking body of treaties, conventions, statutes, regulations, and commonlaw that operates to regulate the interaction of humanity and the natural environment towardsthe purpose of reducing the impacts of human activity.
Environmental law draws from andis influenced by principles of environmentalism, including ecology, conservation,stewardship, responsibility and sustainability. Pollution control laws generally are intended(often with varying degrees of emphasis) to protect and preserve both the naturalenvironment and human health. Resource conservation and management laws generally balance (again, often with varying degrees of emphasis) the benefits of preservation and economic exploitation of resources.
From an economic perspective environmental laws may be understood as concerned with the prevention of present and future externalities and preservation of common resources from individual exhaustion. environmental justice
Environmental law is also defined as a body of rules and regulations, and orders and statutes, concerned with the maintenance and protection of the natural environment of a country
. It provides basis for measuring and apportioning liability in cases of environmental crime andthe failure to comply with its provisions
.Environmental law in Nigeria is a body of rules and regulation which have as their object or effect, the protection of the environment from pollution and the wasteful depletion of natural resources and ensure sustainable development. environmental justice
Under the Nigerian law, environmental law includes all the sources of environmental law including the constitution, International treaties, state laws, local government laws and common law. Notwithstanding the above definitions of environmental law, it is difficult to give a precise definition of environmental law because of its nature. However, I subscribe to the definition of effect, the protection of the environment from pollution and the wasteful depletion of natural resources and ensure sustainable development.
1.1.3 Environmental Protection
Environmental protection definition includes all available practices used to protect our environment, whether on individual, organizational or global (international) level
.Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the environment, on individual,organizational or governmental levels, for the benefit of the natural environment and (or) humans. environmental justice
