THE IMPACT OF PARENTS ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ON CHILD SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

 

ABSTRACT

Early childhood development forms the foundation for a productive adult life of every individual and to the progress of every nation. The socioemotional domain of development is the bedrock of this foundation. The numerous psychosocial problems that ravage individuals and our societies informed the objective of this study to examine the influence of socioeconomic status of parents, social relations and quality of home environment on the socioemotional outcomes of children in Nigeria. The study made use of data from MICS 2011 of Nigeria. Informed by existing literature on the subject and the survey questionnaire, socioemotional development of children was measured by signs of aggression, emotional stability and social relations within the household environment. Based on past literature and appropriateness to the current study, the Ecological Systems Theory of child development was adopted as the theoretical foundation. The chi-square test of association was used to analyse the relationships between the dependent and each of the independent variables and the binary logistic regression model employed to determine the predictors of child’s socioemotional development. The analysis revealed that wealth status of parents is not a significant predictor of child’s socioemotional development. Availability of children’s books, engaging children in social activities, leaving children with other children, the age and sex of child, and region of residence were the significant predictors of socioemotional development. Female children were more likelihood to have positive socioemotional development outlook. The same is said of older children as their development improved with increase in age in months. These findings informed recommendations for parents and household members to engage regularly in social activities with children. It was also recommended that children be allowed to use household objects for playing. It was further recommended that more research work should be done on the measures of socioemotional development, social relations and home environment in order to have uniformity in their measurements.

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

The early years are often considered the most critical stage of development in the lifetime of humans. The cognitive, socioemotional and physical domains of child development at this stage are essential to the extent that they have a lifetime influence on the wellbeing, mental health, literacy and numeracy competencies, criminality, physical outlook and economic contribution of the individual throughout life (Siddiqi, Irwin, & Hertzman, 2007). The importance of early childhood development (ECD) is grounded in the fact that whatever happens in the life of a child in the early years is crucial for their life course development. The central nervous system of the human being undergoes the most rapid development during the early years (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002; NSCDC, 2004; Walter & Wrester, 2009). The environmental conditions to which a child is exposed, provide the “nurturants” for the proper development of the cognitive, socioemotional (behavioural) and physical aspects of the individual (Siddiqi et al., 2007). These nurturants mainly include the quality of relationships (sociocultural), economic and environmental characteristics of the family and society in which the child is born. These characteristics play various roles in shaping the outcomes of the child. This is true irrespective of where a child is born, even though there are contextual influences on how these characteristics affect child development.

Studies (Berger, Paxson, & Waldfogel, 2010; Bradley & Corwyn, 2002; Williams, 2001) have shown evidence of poor cognitive, socioemotional and health development of children to be associated with families with less economic resources availability, than with wealthier families. If this association between child development outcomes and socio-economic status of their

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parents are causally related, such that poor child development outcomes are attributable to the low economic status of their parents, then there are greater implications for the intergenerational transfer of poverty within parents and families. Children from low SES families may be less likely to obtain higher education (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 2010; Opoku,

2014), have poor physical health (Blau, 1999; Chen, 2004; Moore, Redd, Burkhauser, Mbwana,

& Collins, 2009; Siddiqi et al., 2007) and would have lower financial earnings in adulthood (Aughinbaugh & Gittleman, 2003; Berger et al., 2010; Okumu, Nakajjo, & Isoke, 2008). They would also likely have low social interactions and social networks (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002; Yunus & Dahlan, 2013). These cohorts are likely to go on to raise their children in poorer environmental and socio-economic conditions, and the generational cycle of poverty and poor child development continues. Thus, it is important to understand the dynamics of child development and the influencing factors, in order to map out strategies for the proper upbringing of children in our society. The proper development of children in the early stages of life is crucial to their outcome in later life. To understand the impact of the environment and other factors on child development, this study focuses on the extent of influence of the socioeconomic statuses of Nigeriaian parents on child development with emphasis on the socioemotional development of children. The study makes use of the 2011 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS 4) which provides data on the situation of children and women in Nigeria in order to establish the relationship between SES of parents and child development in Nigeria.

1.1 The Concept of Child Development

Child development refers to the biological, psychological and emotional changes that occur in human beings between birth and the end of adolescence, as the individual progresses from dependency to increasing independence (Johnson, Christie, & Yawkey, 1987; UNICEF, 1989).

The development of the child is a continuous process that has a predictable sequence, but that which is unique for every child. Early childhood is considered as the most important and fastest period of development of the individual throughout the life course. The early years of life are very critical for ensuring the thorough and healthy cognitive, socioemotional and physical development of children (Cohen, Onunaku, Clothier, & Poppe, 2005; Duncan & Brooks-gunn, 2000; Walter & Wrester, 2009).

Early childhood development forms the foundation for a full and productive adult life of every individual and to the progress of every nation. For the child to have a healthy wellbeing in the future and ensure their economic participation, academic success, social citizenship, and good health during the course of their life, happenings and experiences in the early stages of childhood must be right (Bartolotta & Shulman, 2010; Siddiqi et al., 2007). Research has shown that half of a person's intelligence potential is developed by age four and that early childhood interventions can have a lasting effect on intellectual capacity, personality and social behaviour (Walter & Wrester, 2009).

There are three fundamental areas of development of the human being starting from childhood. These developmental areas are described as the domains of child development (Cohen et al., 2005) and they include the cognitive, socioemotional and physical/health development of the child. Cognitive development of the child refers to the progressively continuous growth of the intellectual capabilities of the child (Siddiqi et al., 2007). Critical areas of the cognitive component of child development include the formation of perception, memory, imagination, conception, judgment, and reason (Bartolotta & Shulman, 2010). Nicolosi et al (1989) describe the cognitive domain as

“the intellectual counterpart of one’s biological adaptation to the environment”. Quoting Owens

(2008), Bartolotta & Shulman (2010) also refer to cognitive development as comprising of “the mental activities of comprehending information and the processes of acquiring, organizing, remembering and using knowledge”. In all these processes, Piaget (1954) suggests that the child learns through the cognitive abilities by acting on the environment and with others.

The physical development of children refers to the development of the motor skills which involves the ability to engage in physical movement of the body (Bartolotta & Shulman, 2010). There are two main types of motor development; namely the gross motor and fine motor. The gross motor development denotes the physical skills that use large body movements, usually involving the movement of the whole body (Bartolotta & Shulman, 2010). Fine motor skills enable the child to engage in smaller, more precise movements of muscles in the more manipulative areas of the body such as the fingers and tongue. The fine motor skills enable children to be able to gain some level of independence in dressing and undressing themselves. Child health is an indicator of physical development of the child. As a result, the physical development domain is sometimes referred to as “physical/health development” and can be used interchangeably either simply as physical development or health development domain. Child health is largely dependent on the child’s nutritional status and the nutrition of the mother and while good health is directly linked with the physical development of the child, it is equally very important for the cognitive and emotional development of children (Siddiqi et al., 2007).

The important ingredient for proper development of the child lies in the environment in which children live, grow and learn (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Siddiqi et al., 2007; UNICEF, 1989; Walter & Wrester, 2009). Several levels of environmental influence interplay to form the development of the child. These environments include the child’s immediate family, extended family, school environment, religious environment, the community, national and international entities. There ought to be some nurturing qualities of the environments that help shape the growth process of the child (Berger et al., 2010; Siddiqi et al., 2007).

1.2 Socioemotional Development of Children

Socioemotional development is defined by Cohen et al. (2005) as the child's experience, expression, and management of emotions and the ability to establish positive and rewarding relationships with others. It comprises both intra- and interpersonal relational and emotional processes as the individual changes in the course of their life. Review of literature on this domain of child development found four subdomains namely; social competence, emotional competence, behaviour problems, and self-regulation (Halle & Darling-Churchill, 2016).

The subdomain of social competence is defined in early childhood literature as “the degree to which children are effective in their social interactions with others, including making and sustaining social connections, demonstrating cooperative skills and flexibility, and adjusting behaviour to meet the demands of different social contexts” (Halle & Darling-Churchill, 2016: 9). Emotional competence as a subdomain of socioemotional development relates to the ability to understand the emotions of self and others, read emotional cues and react to others' emotions, regulate one's own emotions, and understand the consequences of one's own emotional expressiveness (Denham, Zinsser, & Bailey, 2011; Halle & Darling-Churchill, 2016). Children’s behavioural functioning is not very easy to determine, as these have to be measured in a continuum. Halle & Darling-Churchill (2016) explain that behaviours that are “developmentally inappropriate or that impede a child's ability to adapt and function in their families, early care and education settings, or with a peer group are considered problematic” (p. 9). Literature finds these behavioural traits to include such internalizing behaviours as worries, anxieties, sadness or social withdrawal and externalizing behaviours such as roughness, hostility, disruptiveness, noncompliance, and aggression (Denham et al., 2011; Halle & Darling-Churchill, 2016; Han & Kemple, 2006; Jones, Greenberg, & Crowley, 2015). The final subdomain of socioemotional development is the self-regulation, which has been defined to include the abilities to control impulses, delay gratification, resist temptation and peer pressure, reflect on one’s feelings, and monitor oneself (Han & Kemple, 2006). In other words, self-regulations involve the ability to manage one’s emotions and exhibit self-control skills.

Having discussed the various subdomains of socioemotional development, it is important to understand how empirical studies have dealt with this aspect of child development in the past and how they relate socioemotional development in the early years of life to the overall development throughout the course of human life.

The American Academy of Paediatrics (AAP) has asserted that socioemotional development is an essential component of a child’s total health and wellbeing, because it both reveals and impacts upon the developing brain’s wiring and function (AAP, 2005). This domain of child development, they argue, plays the most critical role within the first few years of life as it prepares the child to be self-confident, believing, empathic, intellectually inquisitive, capable of using language to communicate, and relating well with others (AAP, 2005). Cohen et al. (2005) corroborated this position by the AAP when they presented a strategic policy report to the American National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) in September 2005. In their report, the researchers upheld that acquiring socioemotional skills empowers children to learn from their teachers and caregivers, make friends with their peers, express their thoughts and feelings, and to cope with frustrations that may come their way (Cohen et al., 2005). These skills, others have argued, have direct influence on the cognitive learning of children including language skills, literacy and numeracy and the physical wellbeing as well.

The revealing importance of the socioemotional aspect of child development is explained by Green & Lee (2009). They observe this domain as being very important for a child’s successful development in adult life since healthy socioemotional development invariably forms the basis for children to develop early skills that they will require to help them succeed in adulthood (Denham et al., 2011; Halle & Darling-Churchill, 2016; Putnam-Franklin, Love, Theriault, & Fox, 2014). Skills such as learning how to pay attention, cooperate with others, and get along with others allow children to develop the confidence to explore and learn about the world in which they live and participate in many ventures including economic participation (Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, 2002). However, the socioemotional aspect of child development, like the other aspects, does not operate in isolation. They work together in tandem to ensure the complete healthy development of the child (Bartolotta & Shulman, 2010; Cohen et al., 2005; Green & Lee, 2009).

Goodman, Joshi, Nasim & Tyler (2015) reviewed literature on socioemotional skills in childhood and their long-term impact on adult life and found that many literature point to the important role childhood socioemotional development skills play on their adult self-perception, self-awareness and self-esteem. They also found social skills in the early years of life to be important primary predictors of “non-labour market outcomes, in particular, mental health and wellbeing, health behaviours, and partnerships in later life” (Goodman et al., 2015). In another recent study, Jones, Greenberg, & Crowley (2015) found that children who are better at resolving conflicts with peers in early years, understand emotions, and are helpful and cooperative with others, are more likely to become well-adjusted in later years. They found significant relationships between early childhood socioemotional functioning and outcomes in education, employment, criminality, substance abuse and mental health in later years, even after they controlled for some important variables pertaining to the child, family, and context.

1.3 Background of the Study

Child development has been widely researched in literature and researchers offer varying explanations on what influence the cognitive, socioemotional and physical development of children. While some of the measures are applicable everywhere, there are contextual factors which are influenced by sociocultural and environmental variables. Household income is widely thought to have significant association with child development in most studies (Berger et al., 2010; Blau, 1999; Williams, 2001). Yet the importance of household characteristics and social capital as well as the neighbourhood environment, in influencing the development outcomes of children cannot be undermined (Quansah, Ohene, Norman, Mireku, & Karikari, 2016).

To prepare children for school and provide them with a good foundation to life, the “A World Fit for Children” initiative by UNICEF among others, aims to “promote the physical, psychological, spiritual, social, emotional, cognitive and cultural development of children as a matter of national and global priorities” (UNICEF, 2002: 19). As a consequence, and in accordance with section 8 of The Children’s Act of 1998 (Act 560), the government of Nigeria developed a comprehensive Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) policy in 2004 to provide a good start in life for all children (MICS Nigeria, 2011). These policies, together with institutional specific policies and academic research outcomes help to shape the development of children in Nigeria and the world at large.

Research on factors that influence child development have centred mainly on household income. A review of studies on the relationship between household SES and child wellbeing by Blau (1999) indicates that family income has considerable impacts on wellbeing, and the greatest of these effects is on a child's academic capabilities and accomplishments. A study by Aughinbaugh &

Gittleman (2003) in the United States of America and United Kingdom found similar results, that household income has a positive and significant effect on child development. They also found other family background variables as most important factors that affect child development.

Much of those studies were carried out in the developed countries. In sub-Saharan Africa, like in most parts of the developing world, there is paucity of literature that comprehensively discuss the issue of child development and the factors that influence same. Where it has been studied, there are no adequate data to address all aspects of the issue.

1.4 Statement of the Problem

The UNICEF led “A World Fit for Children” initiative provides a roadmap to creating a world in which all children get the best possible start in life and have access to a quality basic education. The initiative also seeks to promote the physical, psychological, spiritual, social, emotional, cognitive and cultural development of children as a matter of national and global priorities

(UNICEF, 2002). Sickly children cannot grow up to become productive workforce of a country.

In view of this, and in view of successive national governments’ policies to provide safe and supportive environment for the development of children, there have been research studies on the factors that influence child development. Aspects of child development have been studied and attributed to varying socio-economic and other factors within the household as well as societal levels.

Notwithstanding these initiatives by international institutions and national governments to create conducive environments for the development of children, there still remains a host of social issues such as criminality, mental disorders, personality disorders, health problems, physical underdevelopment or overdevelopment and many others, most of which trace their causes to happenings in the early years of life. For instance, the poor relationship and interaction of a child with parents and other children at younger age may result in personality disorders later in life. A child born in an aggressive environment may end up showing and exhibiting signs of aggression later in life. Similarly, a child born to poor uneducated parents who cannot afford a balance diet or pay school fees may end up malnourished, stunted or deficient in literacy. The attendant problems associated with these mishaps are ominous for any society.

In Nigeria, a couple of studies have dealt with child development and these studies have only dealt with the issue in part. Lartey, Khanam, & Takahashi (2016) studied the impact of household wealth on child survival in Nigeria and found high household wealth to have significant effect on child survival. Other factors including parental education (Opoku, 2014), social class and rural-urban disparities (Quansah et al., 2016), type of household headship (Kyei, 2007; Opoku, 2014) have been applied variously to study aspects of child development, especially the cognitive and physical/health domains of child development in Nigeria. The socioemotional aspects of child development have been largely overlooked. To the best of my knowledge, no study has been found to have considered the role of socioeconomic conditions of the household to the analysis of socioemotional (behavioural) development of children in Nigeria. This rather very important component of child development has been found by research to correlate positively with healthy cognitive development, which creates a strong foundation for academic and socioemotional accomplishments in the future.

The importance of the socioemotional development of children lies in the fact that it promotes the communicative and relational skills of the child necessary for learning and integration throughout life (Mao & Gratch, 2005). Some institutions and non-governmental organisations in Nigeria, having recognized the important role of this component of child development, have instituted early childhood learning and mentorship programmes to help families provide the needed support for children to develop in this area. Such organisations as PAMBE Nigeria, Compassion International Nigeria (CIGH), First Intervention Nigeria (FIG) and Child Rights International (CRI) Nigeria have advocated for the implementation of the Child Protection Laws of Nigeria to enable children get the best possible care that they need in early years. Despite these calls, there has not been much effort from the academia and research institutions to assess the effects of socioemotional needs of children and how they influence the overall development of the child.

Thus, this study seeks to fill that gap by examining the role played by a household’s socioeconomic characteristics on child’s socioemotional development in Nigeria using data from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) of 2011. Knowledge of the relationship between these variables will help create a nurturing environment for the development of children’s unique abilities and personalities in order to prepare them for a fulfilling adulthood life.

1.5 Significance of the Study

Children are the pillars of development of any society. Children help in the perpetuation of society and preservation of human culture. Due to the central role that children play in the sustenance of society, it is essential to study how children grow, learn and change during the course of their life. An understanding of early childhood development ramifications allows us to fully appreciate the cognitive, socioemotional and physical growth that children undergo from birth until they enter early adulthood. In other words, socioemotional development provides the foundation for a child’s experience, expression and management of both positive and negative emotions and relationship with other children and adults. Experiences in early life can either form a robust start to life or a friable one, and this can impact the ways in which children react and respond to the world around them for the rest of their lives (Cohen et al., 2005). It is important therefore, to understand the ways by which we can lay the right foundation for children in their early years so that they can become useful to society and themselves in their adulthood.

The importance of the socioemotional aspect of child development is succinctly explained by Green & Lee (2009). The researchers posited that the socioemotional domain of child development provides the foundation for children’s successful development later in life. Others have also emphasised this point; noting that healthy socioemotional development forms the basis for children to develop early social, behavioural and emotional management skills which they will require in many aspects of their lives to help them succeed in adulthood (Denham et al., 2011; Halle & Darling-Churchill, 2016; Putnam-Franklin et al., 2014). Skills such as learning how to pay attention, listen to people, cooperate with others, and get along with others allow children to develop the confidence to explore and learn about the world in which they live and participate in many ventures in their later life including education, social and/or economic participation (Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, 2002). For this reason, it is important to take special interest in the formation process of children in order to guide them through their social and behavioural development process.

In the present time, data on children and their developmental processes are largely unavailable or inadequate in our country in particular and the sub-Saharan African region in general. This study is timely and significant at such a time, for the important reason that the findings herein will add to the body of knowledge that attempt to explain the socioemotional aspect of child development in our context. The study will also provide insight into the specific influencing factors of socioemotional development of children. This would guide Early Childhood Development practitioners, policymakers and parents on the essential focus areas in dealing with children in their formation years.

In the year 2015, a team of researchers conducted a review of literature on the socioemotional skills development in childhood and their long-term impact on adult life. In their findings, many literatures point to the important role that childhood socioemotional development skills play on their adult life particularly in the areas of self-perception, self-awareness and self-esteem. They also found that social skills in the early years of life were important primary predictors of nonlabour market outcomes, including mental health and wellbeing, good health behaviours, and relationships in later life (Goodman et al., 2015). Considering the importance of proper socioemotional upbringing in childhood for a useful adult life, it can be inferred that the many social problems that we face today in our society have their foundation causes in the quality of development of children in their early years. The spate of criminality in our society, incidences and prevalence of various social vices in our society such as armed robbery, spontaneous public attacks on individuals on the streets (mob attacks) as well as bribery and corruptions in public and private services can be said to trace their causes to the early years of individuals and the level of socioemotional development that individuals underwent in childhood. Other vices including domestic violence, abuses in relationships, substance abuse, psychological problems such as depressions and personality defects, and psychiatric problems may also trace their causes to inadequate early childhood upbringing. With this in mind, it is important to carefully understand the ramifications of socioemotional development of our children in order to properly guide them through their formation years.

In another recent study, Jones, Greenberg, & Crowley (2015) found that children who are better at resolving conflicts with peers, understand emotions, and are helpful and cooperative with others are more likely to become well-adjusted adults who have jobs and contribute positively to society. They found significant relationships between early childhood socioemotional functioning and outcomes in education, employment, criminality, substance abuse and mental health in later years, even after they controlled for some important variables pertaining to the child, family, and context.

Again, an appreciation of the contributing factors that influence the socioemotional development of children in Nigeria will help families, policymakers and national government to model society in a way as to enable a nurturing environment for proper child development. This study will help to examine the factors that play important roles in the development of children and offer policy alternatives, if necessary, to the child centered policies in the country.

Lastly, as an academic research, findings from the study will add to the already existing body of knowledge on the socioemotional development of children and the factors that interplay within the household environment to ensure acceptable upbringing of children.

1.6 Research Questions

The questions that this study seeks to answer include:

• What is the relationship between economic status of parents and the socioemotional development of children in Nigeria?
• What is the association between the quality of home environment and child’s

socioemotional development?

• Do social relations within the household influence the socioemotional outcomes of children?

1.7 Research Objectives

The objectives of the study are classified as general and specific.

1.7.1 General objective

The main objective of the study is to examine the relationships between socioeconomic statuses of parents and the socioemotional development outcomes of children in the context of Nigeria in order to inform policy directions and contribute to knowledge.

1.7.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the study include the following:

• To examine the relationship between parents’ economic status and child socioemotional development.
• To investigate the association between the quality of home environment and child socioemotional development in Nigeria.
• To determine the influence of social interactions within the household on the socioemotional development of children.

1.8 Research Hypotheses

The following propositions are made on the relationships between the predictor variables and the dependent variable. Three hypotheses are presented here including:

Hypothesis One: Children from economically wealthier parents are more likely to be socioemotionally on track.

Hypothesis Two: Children who play with homemade/shop toys are more likely to be socioemotionally on track compared to children who play with household objects.

Hypothesis Three: Children whose household members engage them in three or more social activities are more likely to be socioemotionally on track compared to those who are not engaged in social activities.

 

THE IMPACT OF PARENTS ECONOMIC BACKGROUND ON CHILD SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

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